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THE 


AMERICAN   SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 


PUBLISHED    UNDER    THE    DIRECTION    OF 

THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  FOR  THE  DIFFUSION 
OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


"  Knowledge  is  like  the  light  of  heaven  ;  free,  pure,  pleasant,  exhaustless.  It  invitei  aU 
to  possession  :  it  admits  of  no  pre-emption,  no  rights  exclusive,  no  monopoly." 

"Promote,  as  objects  of  primary  importance,  institutions  for  the  general  diffusion  of 
hnowledfe.o—fVathington's  Farewell  Address. 


NEW-YORK: 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 

NO.   82    CLIFF-STREET. 

183  8. 


THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY 


FOR  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 

President : 
Honourable  Stephen  Van  Rensselakr. 
Vice-Presidents : 
His  Excellency  Gov.  Marcy,  Albany.  His  Ex.  Gov.  Everett,  LL  D,  Mass. 
Hon.  Albert  Gallatin,      New- York.  Hon.  Dan.  VVebster,  LL.U.,  Boston. 
Hon.  Reuben  H.  VValwonli,    N.  Y.  James  Milnor,  D.D.,        New- York. 
JRt.  Rev.  Benj.  T.  Oiiderdonk,  N.  Y.  His  Excellency  Gov.  Dunlap,     Me. 
Hon.  Franklin  Pierce,  N.  H.jHon.  Ruel  Williams,  Me. 

Francis  Wayland,  D.D.,  R.  I.  Hon.  Horace  Everett, 

Hon.  Theodore  Frelinghuysen,  N.  .I.iHon.  Roger  M.  Sherman, 


Hon.  Samuel  li.  Southard,  N.  J 
Hon.  Robert  C.  Greer,  Penn. 

Hon.  Roger  B.  Taney,  Md. 

Hon  Windham  Robertson,  Va. 

Hon.  William  C,  Rives,  Va. 

GeneralJames  Hamilton,  S.  C. 

Hon.  Henry  Hitchcock,  Ala. 

Hon.  Alexander  Porter,  La. 

Hon.  Felix  Grimdy,  Tenn. 

Rt.  Rev.  Charles  P.  M'llvaine,  Ohio. 
His  Excellency  Gov.  Duncan,  111. 
Henry  R.  Schoolcraft,  E^5q.,     Mich.  I 

Board  of  Directors 


Hon.  Horace  Binney,  LL.D., 
Hon.  James  Hayard, 
Thomas  Sewall,  M.D., 
Hon.  William  Gaston, 
Hon.  John  M.  Berrien, 
Hon.  Robert  J.  Walker, 
Hon.  Thomas  J.  Lacy, 
Hon.  Henry  Clay,  LL.D., 
John  C.  Young,  D.D., 
Hon    William  Hendricks, 
Hon.  Lewis  F.  Lion, 


Vt. 

Conn. 
Penn. 

Del. 
D.  C. 
N.  C. 

Geo. 
Miss. 

Ark. 

Kv. 

Ky. 

Ind. 

Mo. 


Alonzo  Potter,  D.D.,       New- York. 
John  Knox,  D.D., 
Jacob  Janeway,  D.D.,  " 

Rev.  John  A.  Vaushan,  " 

Rev.  Gorham  D.  Abbott,  " 

Hon.  Benj.  F.  Hutler,  LL.D.,       " 
Hon.  Samuel  T.  Armstrong,   Mass. 
Hon.  Samuel  Hubbard.  LL  D.,    " 
Hon.  John  Sergeant,  Pennsylvania. 
Peter  G.  Stuyvesant,  Esq.,       N.  Y. 
Hugh  Maxwell,  Esq  ,  " 

Charles  Butler,  Esq.,  '• 

Hiram  Ketchum,  Ksq.,  " 

James  Brown,  Esq.,  " 

Frederic  A.  Tracy,  Esq.,  " 

Eleazer  Lord,  Esq.,  " 

Thomas  Cock,  M  D.,  " 

John  T.  Gilchrist,  Ksq  ,  " 

Samuel  W.  Seton,  Esq.,  " 

Isaac  Collins,  Esq.,     Pennsylvania.' 

Executive  Committee: 
J.\MEs  Brown,  Esq.,  New-York,  Chairman. 


Thomas  M'Auley,  D.D.,  New- York, 

Francis  L.  Hawks,  D.D.,  " 

Thomas  Dewitt,  D.D.,  " 

Rev.  George  Potts,  " 

Rev.  .Tohn  Proudfit,  " 

Prof.  Benj.  Silliman,  LL.D., 

Hon.  Samuel  Jones, 

Hon.  Myndert  Van  Schaick, 

Hon.  Heiiian  Lincoln, 

Bradford  Sumner,  Esq., 

David  Graham,  Esq.. 

Timothy  R.  Green,  Esq. 

George  S.  Robbins,  Esq., 

Cornelius  Baker,  Esq., 

John  Griscom,  LL  D.,  " 

Anthony  P.  Halsey,  Esq.,  " 

Robert  Kelly,  Esq.,  " 

Isaac  S.  Loyd,  Fsq.,  Pennsylvania. 

Thomas  J.  Wharton,  Esq., 


Conn, 

NY. 

■1 

Mass. 

•( 

N.  Y. 
(( 

<< 
N.  Y. 


N.  Y. 


John  Torrey,  M.D.,  Med.  Coll 
Alonzo  Potter,  D.D.,  U.  Col., 
Wilbur  Fisk,  D.D.,  Wes.  Uni.,  Conn. 
Rev.  Jacob  .Abbott,  Boston. 

Rev.  Bela  B.  Edwards, 
Rev.  Leonard  Bacon.    New-Haven. 
Rev.  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  Ohio. 

Charles  Butler,  Esq.,      New-York. 


GoRHAM  D.  Abbott,  Secretary. 
Anthony  P.  Halsev;  Treasurer 


Thomas  Cock,  M.D.,       New- York. 
Lewis  C.  Beck,  NY.  University," 
William  Cooper,  Lye.  Nat.  Hist.,  " 
.John  T.  Gilchrist,  Esq,  ** 

Timothy  R.  Green.  Esq.,  •• 

Marlnus  Willett.  M.D.,  " 

William  Betts,  Esq., 
Henry  E.  Davies,  Esq., 


« 


THE  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 


The  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  present  to  the 
country  the  commencement  of  their  Library  for  schools,  designed  to  em- 
brace, when  completed,  a  few  hundred  volumes,  wriiten  and  compiled 
with  special  reference  to  the  wants  of  the  youth  of  our  country.  It  will 
include  in  the  range  of  its  subjects  works  in  the  various  departments  of 
knowledge  most  interesting  and  useful  to  the  great  body  of  the  people, 
including  history,  voyages  and  travels,  biography,  natural  history,  the 
physical,  intellectual,  moral,  and  political  sciences,  agriculture,  manufac- 
tures, arts,  commerce,  the  belles  lettres,  and  the  history  and  philosophy 
of  education. 

The  increasing  interest  in  the  subject  of  school  libraries  in  several  of 
the  States,  and  the  repeated  calls  upon  the  Committee  for  their  Library, 
have  induced  them  to  issue  the  present  selection  from  existing  publica- 
tions to  meet  the  immediate  wants  of  our  schools,  while  they  go  on,  as 
fast  as  possible,  to  complete  the  plan  announced  in  their  pubUshed  pro- 
spectus. They  will  regard,  in  the  execution  of  it,  the  different  ages, 
tastes,  circumstances,  and  capacities  of  readers. 

The  Committee  present  the  following  fifty  volumes,  chiefly  standard 
■works  of  permanent  interest  and  value,  which  have  already  received  ex- 
tensively the  public  approbation  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  as  the 
commencement  of  the  series,  to  be  extended  from  time  to  time,  until  it 
shall  comprise  a  well-selected  and  comprehensive  Library  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  worthy  of  a  place  in  every  schoolroom  of  our  country. 

It  will  be  the  greatest  care  of  the  Committee,  that  the  whole  be  per- 
vaded and  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  Christian  morality  calculated  to 
refine  and  elevate  the  moral  character  of  our  nation. 


HISTORY. 

A  View  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Egypt.  By  Rev.  M.  Russell,  LL.D. 

Pale.stine,  or  the  Holy  Land.  From 
the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Present 
Time.  By  Rev.  M.  Russell,  LL.D. 

History  of  Chivalry  and  the  Cru- 
sades. By  G.  P.  R.  James.  En- 
gravings. 

The  History  of  Arabia,  Ancient  and 
Modern.  By  Andrew  Crichton. 
2  vols.    Engravings,  &c. 

The  Chinese.  A  general  Description 
of  (he  Empire  of  China  and  its 
Inhabitants.  By  John  Francis 
Davis,  F.R.S.     With  Engravings. 

American  History.  By  the  Author 
of  '-American  Popular  Lessons." 
With  Engravings.    3  vols. 

American  Revolution.  By  B.  B. 
Thatcher,  Esq. 

History  of  New- York.  By  William 
Dunlap. 

History  of  Virginia.  By  Uncle 
rbilip. 


VOYAGES  AND  TRAVELS. 

An  Historical  Account  of  the  Cir- 
cumnavigation of  the  Globe.  En- 
gravings. 

Narrative  of  Discovery  and  Adven- 
ture in  Africa.  From  the  Earliest 
Ages  to  the  Present  Time.  By 
Professor  Jameson,  and  James 
Wilson  and  Hugh  Murray,  Esqrs. 

Lives  and  Voyages  of  Early  Navi- 
gators.   Portraits. 

BIOGRAPHY. 

A  Life  of  Washington.    By  J.  K. 

Paulding,  Esq.     In  2  vols.     With 

Engravings. 
The   Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 

By  J.  G.  Lockhart,  Esq.  In  2  vols. 

With  Portraits. 
The  Life  and  Actions  of  Ale.xander 

the  Great.    By  the  Rev.  J.  Wil- 
liams.   With  a  Map. 
Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Peter  the 

Great.     By  John   Barrow,  Es^ 

Portrait, 


The  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  Bv 
the  Rev.  M.  Russell,  LL.D.  2 
vols.    Portrait. 

Lives  of  Celebriited  Travellers.  By- 
James  Augustus  St.  John.   3  vols. 

Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Female  Sov- 
ereigns. By  Mrs.  Jameson.  2  vols. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. 

A  Popular  Guide  to  the  Observation 
of  Nature  ;  or,  Hints  of  Induce- 
ment to  the  Study  of  Natural  Pro- 
ductions and  Appearances,  in  their 
Connexions  and  Relations.  By 
Robert  Mudie.    Engravings. 

The  Swiss  Family  Robinson ;  or, 
Adventures  of  a  Father  and  Mo- 
ther and  Four  Sons  on  a  Desert 
Island.  2  vols.  With  Engravings. 

The  American  Forest ;  or,  Uncle 
Philip's  Conversations  with  the 
Children  about  the  Trees  of  Amer- 
ica.   With  numerous  Engravings. 

The  Natural  History  of  Insects.  In 
2  vols.     With  Engravings. 

Natural  History  ;  or,  Tools  and 
Trades  among  Inferior  Animals. 
By  Uncle  Philip. 

PHYSICAL  SCIENCE. 

The  Principles  of  Physiology,  ap- 
plied to  the  Preservation  of  Health, 
and  to  the  Improvement  of  Physi- 
cal and  Mental  Education.  By 
Andrew  Combe,  M.D. 

Letters  of  Euier  on  Different  Sub- 
jects of  Natural  Philosophy.  Ad-j 
dressed  to  a  German    Princess.! 

At  a  regular  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee,  it  was  unanimously 
Resolved,  That  the  above-named  fifty  volumes  be  approved  and  adopted 
as  the  commencement  of"  The  American  School  Library,"  and  that  the 
same  be  earnestly  recommended  to  public  patronage. 
In  behalf  of  the  Committee, 
Jamks  Brown,  Chairman,  J.  T.  Gilchrist,  Secretary. 

A.  P.  Halsky,  John  Torrky, 

Thomas  Cock,  Charles  Butler. 

At  a  general  meeting  of  the  Society,  held  on  the  10th  of  May,  1838,  at 
the  Stuyvesant  Institute,  Broadway,  his  Excellency  Governor  MaRcy  hi 
the  chair,  Anthony  P.  Halsky,  Secretary,  it  was  unanimously 

Resoli^ed,  That  we  recommend  the  immediate  introduction  of  a  suitable 
Library  of  Useful  Knowledge  in  every  schoolroom  in  our  State ;  and  that 
we  invite  the  attention  of  teachers,  of  school  committees,  and  of  every 
friend  of  education  and  of  the  universal  diffusion  of  knowledge  in  this  and 
in  other  States,  to  "  The  American  School  Library,"  now  commenced  by 
this  Society.  A.  P.  Halsky,  Secretary. 

GoRHAM  D.  Abbott,  Sec^y  A.  S.  D.  U.K. 


Translated  by  Hunter.  With 
Notes,  and  a  Life  of  Euler,  by  Sir 
David  Brewster ;  and  Additional 
Notes,  by  John  Griscom,  LL.D. 
With  a  Glossary  of  Scientific 
Terms,  and  Engravings. 

INTELLECTUAL  SCIENCE. 

Inquiries  concerning  the  Intellectual 
Powers,  and  the  Investigation  of 
Truth.  By  John  Abercrombie, 
M.D.,F.R.S.     With  Questions. 

BELLES  LETTRES. 
Lectures    on    General    Literature, 
Poetry,  &c.  By  Jas.  Montgomery. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Indian  Traits ;  being  Sketches  of 
the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Char- 
acter of  the  North  American  Na- 
tives. By  B.  B.  Thatcher,  Esq. 
2  vols.    With  Engravings. 

Perils  of  the  Sea  ;  being  Authentic 
Narratives  of  Remarkable  and  Af- 
fecting Disasters  upon  the  Deep. 
With  Engravings. 

The  Poor  Rich  Man  and  the  Rich 
Poor  Man.  By  Miss  C.  M.  Sedg- 
wick. 

The  Ornaments  Discovered.  By 
Mary  Hughs. 

The  Son  of  a  Genius.  By  Mrs. 
Hofland. 

The  Whale-fishery  and  the  Polar 
Seas.     By  Uncle  Philip. 


ARABIA 

VOL.  II. 


MOCHA. 


HARPER    &    BROTHERS,    NEW-YORK. 


Harper's  Slej-enlype  Edition. 

THE 

HISTORY 

OF 

ARABIA 

ANCIENT    AND    MODERN. 


CONTAINING* 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THK  COUNTRY — AN  ACCOUNT  OY  ITS  INHABITANTS, 
ANTIQUITIES,  POLITICAL  CONDITION,  AND  EARLY  COMMERCE — THK 
LIFE  AND  RELIGION  OF  MOHAMMED — THE  CONQUESTS,  ARTS,  AND 
LITERATURE  OF  THE  SARACENS — THE  CALIPHS  OF  DAMASCUS,  BAGDAD, 
AFRICA,  AND  SPAIN — THE  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  AND  RELIGIOUS  CERE- 
MONIES OF  THE  MODERN  ARABS— ORIGIN  AND  SUPPRESSION  OF  THE 
WAHABEES — THE  INSTITUTIONS,  CHARACTER,  MANNERS,  AND  CUS- 
TOMS OF  THE  BEDOUINS — AND  A  COMPREHENSIVE  VIEW  OF  ITS  NATU- 
RAL   HISTORY. 


BY  ANDREW  CRICHTON. 

WITH     A     MAP     AND     ENGRAVINGS. 
IN   TWO    VOLUMES. 

VOL.  II. 
NEW-YORK: 

PUBLISHED    BY    HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 
NO.  82   CLIFF-STREET. 

18  3  7. 


ENGRAVINGS  m  VOL.  II. 


Vignette.— View  of  the  South  Quarter  of  Mocha. 

An  Arab  of  Rankin  the  Costume  of  Yemen  .     .     .     .  Page  127 

Mecca  and  the  Grand  Temple  during  the  Pilgrimage  .     .     .  185 

Convent  of  EI  Bourg  near  Tor [     [  251 

Abdallah  ibn  Saoud,  Chief  of  the  Wahabees  .....'.  301 
A  Young  Female  of  the  Coffee  Mountains    ,    .    ,    .    [    .313 


CONTENTS 

OF 
THE    SECOND     VOLUME, 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   ABBASSIDES,  OR   CALIPHS   OF   BAGDAD, 

Accession  of  the  Abbassides — Caliphs  of  that  Dynasty — Almau- 
sor — Haroun  al  Raschid — Almamoun  —  Motassem  —  Capri- 
cious Craeltyof  Motawakkel — Magnificence  of  the  Caliphs — 
Weakness  and  Corruption  of  their  Government — Their  MiU- 
tary  Operations — Wars  of  Haroun  al  Raschid  and  his  Suc- 
cessors with  the  Romans — Victories  of  Nicephonis  Phocas 
and  John  Zimisces  over  the  Moslems — Causes  of  the  Down- 
fall of  the  Abbassides — Despotic  Power  of  the  Turkish  Guards 
— Ravages  and  Cruelties  of  the  Karmathians — Dismember- 
ment of  the  Empire  into  independent  Principalities — Persia 
usurped  by  petty  DjTiasties — Conquests  of  Mahmoud  of 
Ghizni  in  India — Irruptions  of  the  Tartars — Togrul  Beg  ap- 
pointed Viceroy  of  the  Mohammedan  Dominions — Hookku 
lays  Siege  to  Bagdad — Surrender  and  Pillage  of  that  Capital 
— Death  of  Mostasem  and  Extinction  of  the  Caliphate  Page  9 

CHAPTER  II. 

CALIPHS   OF   AFRICA,   EGYPT,  AND    SPAIN. 

The  Aglabites  or  Caliphs  of  Cairoan — Military  Exploits  of  the 
Western  Arabs — Reduction  of  Crete — Conquest  of  Sicily — 
Invasion  of  Italy — Pillage  of  Rome — Siege  of  Gaeta— Naval 
Victory  of  the  Christians — Subjugation  of  Corsica  and  Sardi- 
nia by  the  Saracens — Expulsion  of  the  Aglabites — Moorish 
Kingdom  of  Timbuctoo — Dynasty  of  the  Fatimites  in  Egypt 
— Their  Subversion  by  Saladm,  Founder  of  the  Ayubites — 
Dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  in  Spain  founded  by  Abdalrahman 
— Their  Power  and  Magnificence — Extinction  of  the  Caliph 


4  CONTENTS. 

ate — Conquest  of  Granada  by  Ferdinand — Wealth  and  Popu- 
lation of  the  Moorish  Capitals — The  Government,  Arms,  and 
Military  Tactics  of  the  Arabs — Revenue,  Trade,  and  Marine 
of  Spain  under  the  Saracens — Reduction  of  Sicily  by  the 
Normans,  and  final  Overthrow  of  the  Mohammedan  Power  in 
Europe 39 

CHAPTER  III. 

LITERATURE    OP   THE   ARABS. 

The  Arabs  turn  their  Attention  to  Learning — Their  rapid  Pro- 
gress— Literary  Ardour  and  Patronage  of  the  CaHphs — Haroun 
al  Raschid — Almamoun — Vathek — College  of  Mostanser  at 
Bagdad — Academies  and  Libraries  founded  in  Persia,  Syria, 
Egypt,  Africa,  and  Spain — Course  of  Study  in  the  Saracen 
Schools  —  Grammar  —  Rhetoric  —  Poetry  —  Tales  —  Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments— Story-tellers— History— Biography- 
Numismatics — Geography — Statistics — Metaphysics  —  Medi- 
cine and  Medical  Authors — Rhazes — Avicenna — Pharmacy — 
Anatomy  and  Surgery — Botany — Chymistry — Astrology — As- 
tronomy— Optics  —  Mathematics — Trigonometry — Algebra — 
Arithmetic — Architecture — The  Fine  Arts — Painting — Cal- 
ligraphy— Music — Agriculture — Manufactures  in  Steel,  Por- 
celain, and  Leather — Claims  of  the  Arabs  as  the  Restorers 
of  Letters  and  the  Importers  of  useful  Arts  and  Inventions 
into  Europe 60 

CHAPTER  IV. 

CIVIL    HISTORY   AND   GOVERNMENT   OF   ARABIA. 

Extinction  of  the  SaracenPower— Formation  of  new  Kingdoms 
in  the  East — Victories  and  Dominions  of  Timur — Conquests 
of  the  Turks  and  Portuguese  in  Arabia— Selim  I.  obtains  the 
Investiture  of  the  Caliphate — Expulsion  of  the  Turks  by  the 
Independent  Arab  Chiefs — Dominions  of  the  Imam  of  Sanaa 
— His  Government,  Revenues,  and  Military  Force — Descrip- 
tion of  Sanaa — Visits  of  European  Travellers  to  that  Capital 
— Principal  Towns  in  Yemen— Beit  el  Fakih— Taas — Mocha 
— Aden— Government  of  Hadramaut — Of  Oman — Description 
of  Muscat — Court,  Revenues,  and  Commercial  Enterprise  of 
the  Imam — Islands  of  Bahrein — Pearl  Fisheries — Depreda 
tions  of  the  Joassamee  Pirates  in  the  Persian  Gulf— Various 
Expeditions  from  India  to  suppress  them — Reduction  of  Ras 
el  Khyma  and  their  principal  Fortresses — Arab  Settlers  on 
the  Persian  Frontier — Classification  of  the  wandering  Be- 
douin Tribes— Their  migratory  Habits  and  Military  Strength 
— Government  of  their  Sheiks— Their  Laws  and  Judicial 
Trials— Reflections  on  their  Political  Institutions  .    .    .108 


CONTENTS.  5 

CHAPTER  V. 

HEJAZ,  OR    HOLY   LAND   OF   THE   MOSLEM. 

Government  of  Hejaz— Succession  and  Power  of  the  Sheriffs — 
Reign  of  Ghaleb — Sheriff  FamiHes  at  Mecca— Cities  and 
Towns  in  Hejaz— Jidda— Yembo — Ta'if— Mecca— Description 
of  the  Beituilah  or  Grand  Temple— The  Court  and  Colon- 
nades—The Kaaba— The  Black  Stone— The  Tob  or  Cover- 
ing of  the  Kaaba — The  Zemzem  Well — Servants  and  Reve- 
nues of  the  Mosque — Inhabitants  of  IMecca — Their  Character, 
Domestic  Manners  and  Employments — Low  State  of  Arts 
and  Learning  in  Hejaz 168 

CHAPTER  VL 

THE   MOHAMMEDAN    PILGRIMAGE. 

The  Pilgrim-caravans — Their  different  Routes — Description  and 
Number  of  Pilgrims — The  Mahmal — The  Ihram — Duties  of 
the  Pilgrims  on  arriving  at  Mecca — Walk  to  Safra  and  Omra 
— Journey  to  Arafat — Sermon  of  the  Cadi — Curious  Appear- 
ance of  the  Scene — Stoning  of  the  Devil — The  Feast  of  Sa- 
crifice— Return  of  the  Procession  to  Mecca — Visit  to  the  Inte- 
rior of  the  Kaaba — Departure  of  the  Caravans — Altered 
Appearance  of  the  City — Holy  Places  round  Mecca — Pil- 
grimage to  Medina — Description  of  the  City — Its  Inhabitants 
— Their  Character  and  Occupation — The  Mosque  of  the 
Prophet — The  famous  Tomb  of  Mohammed — Ceremonies 
required  of  the  Hajjis — Servants  and  Revenues  of  the  Mosque 
— Sacred  Places  near  Medina — Return  of  the  Pilgrims— Bedr 
— Suez — Convent  of  St.  Catherine — Regulations  and  Hospi- 
tality of  the  Monks — Places  of  Superstitious  Resort  about 
Mount  Sinai— The  Cave  of  Elijah— The  Rock  of  iMeribah— 
Gebel  Mokkateb  or  the  Written  Mountain — The  Convent 
near  Tor — Gebel  Narkous  or  Mountain  of  the  Bell  .     .     .  205 

CHAPTER  VII. 

HISTORY   OF   THE   WAHABEES. 

Origin  of  the  Wahabees — Their  Founder,  Abdel  Wahab— Ac 
count  of  their  Doctrines — Success  of  Ibn  Saoud  and  Abdela 
zeez  in  Nejed — Siege  and  Plunder  of  Kerbela — Submission 
of  Mecca  and  IMedina — Destruction  of  religious  Monuments 
— Murder  of  Abdelazeez — Accession  of  Saoud — His  Charac- 
ter— Govemnnent — Revenues — Military  Tactics — Re'vival  of 
the  pilgrimage — Predatory  Incursions  of  the  Wahabees — At- 
tempts of  the  Turkish  Government  to  suppress  them — Expe- 


b  CONTENTS, 

ditionfrom  Egypt  lands  at  Yembo— Defeat  of  Toussoun  Bey 
at  Jedeida— Recapture  of  Medina  by  the  Turks— Thomas 
Keith,  a  Native  of  Edinburgh,  made  Governor  of  the  City- 
Recovery  of  Mecca  and  Hejaz— Moharhmed  Ali  takes  the 
Command  in  Person— Arrest  and  Death  of  Ghaleb— Repulse 
of  the  Turks  at  Taraba— Capture  of  Gonfode— Death  of 
Saoud— Accession  of  Abdallah— Strength  of  the  Turkish 
Army— Defeat  of  the  Wahabees  at  Bissel— Surrender  of  Ta- 
raba and  Beishe— Cruelties  of  Ali— His  Return  to  Egypt- 
Campaign  of  Toussoun  in  Nejed — Treaty  of  Peace  with  Ab- 
dallah—Treachery  of  Ali  and  Renewal  of  Hostilities— Expe- 
dition under  Ibrahim  Pasha — His  success  in  Nejed^Siege 
and  Surrender  of  Deraiah— Death  of  Abdallah— Suppression 
of  the  Wahabees  and  Destruction  of  their  Capital— Reflec 
tions  on  the  Character  of  their  Government  and  Religion  254 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

SOCIAL   STATE    OF   THE   ARABS. 

National  Character  ot  the  Arabs — Their  Family  Pride — Orders 
of  Nobility— Their  Domestic  Life— Their  Tents— Furniture- 
Mode  of  Encamping — Dress — Personal  Appearance — Acute- 
ness  of  their  Senses — Sagacity  in  tracing  Footsteps — Their 
Arms— Food  and  Cookery — Manner  of  Eating — Diseases — 
Wealth  and  Industry — Marriage  —  Divorce — Education  of 
their  Children — Funerals — Modes  of  Salutation — Hospitality 
Warfare — Robbery  and  Theft — The  Blood-revenge — Amuse- 
ments— Poetry  and  Music — Learning — Medicine — Supersti 
tions — Language — Arts — Commerce — Proposed  SteamRoutes 
by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Red  Sea — Population — Concluding 
Reflections 306 

CHAPTER  IX. 

NATURAL    HISTORY   OF   ARABIA 

Want  of  Information  on  the  Natural  History  of  Arabia— Scien- 
tific Discoveries  of  the  Danish  Travellers— Geologv — Mount 
Sinai— Hills  of  Hejaz  and  Yemen— Volcanic  Rocks— Hot 
Spring's — Soil— Agriculture — Crops — Harvest— Comparative 
Fertility  of  different  Districts— Mineralogy— No  Gold  or 
Silver  Mines  in  Arabia— Precious  Stones— Botany— Vegeta- 
bles—Plants— Coloquintida— Tobacco — Hemp— Trees  and 
Shrubs— Fruit-trees  —  The  Palm  — Date-groves— Manna— 
Gum-arabic— Honey—  Shrubs— The  Nebek— Tamarisk — 
Balsam  of  Mecca— The  Gharkad— Henna— Acacia— Incense 
Tree— Coffee— Zoology— Wild  Animals  —  Hyenas  —  Mon- 
keys—  Rock-goats— Hares — Jerboas,  &c 349 


ARABIA; 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    ABBASSIDES,    OR    CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

Accession  of  the  Abbassides— Caliphs  of  that  DjTiasty— Alman- 
sor  —  Haroun  al  Raschid — Almamoun  —  Motassem  —  Capri- 
cious Cruelty  of  Motawakkel — Magnificence  of  the  CaUphs — 
Weakness  and  Corruption  of  their  Government — Their  Mili- 
tary Operations — Wars  of  Haroun  al  Raschid  and  his  Suc- 
cessors with  the  Romans— Victories  of  Nicephorus  Phocas 
and  John  Zimisces  over  the  Moslems — Causes  of  the  Down- 
fall of  the  Abbassides— Despotic  Power  of  the  Turkish  Guards 
— Ravages  and  Cruelties  of  the  Karmathians — Dismember- 
ment of  the  Empire  into  independent  PrincipaUties — Persia 
usurped  by  petty  Dynasties — Conquests  of  Mahmoud  of 
Ghizni  in  India— Irruptions  of  the  Tartars— Togrul  Beg  ap- 
pointed Viceroy  of  the  Mohammedan  Dominions— Hoolaku 
lays  Siege  to  Bagdad— Surrender  and  Pillage  of  that  Capital 
—Death  of  Mostasem  and  Extinction  of  the  Caliphate. 

With  the  elevation  of  the  house  of  Abbas  the 
family  of  Mohammed  ascended  once  more  the  pulpit 
and  the  throne  of  their  ancestor  ;  and  so  long-  as  the 
Saracen  power  continued  to  exist,  they  ruled  the 
greater  part  of  the  Moslem  world.  The  Arabs  have 
marked  the  several  dynasties  with  different  degrees 
of  reverence  and  respect.  The  reigns  of  Abu  Beker, 
Omar,  Othman,  and  Ali  are  distinguished  by  the  title 
of  the  Perfect  Caliphate,  as  that  of  then-  successors 


10  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

is  called  the  Imperfect.  The  Ommiades  are  gene- 
rally styled  Caliphs  of  Syria,  their  capital  being  Da- 
mascus ;  while  the  Abbassides  are  known  in  history 
as  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad,  the  city  to  which  they 
transferred  their  court.  In  the  rise  of  the  Moham- 
medan monarchy,  the  empire,  however  menaced  by 
revolt,  was  still  one  and  undivided ;  but  in  its  de- 
cline and  fall  this  indivisibility  ceased,  and  the  Mos- 
lems beheld  three  independent  sovereignties  erected, 
towards  the  close  of  the  eighth  century,  within  dif- 
ferent parts  of  their  dominions — one  seated  at  Bag- 
dad, another  in  Egypt  and  Africa,  and  a  third  in 
Spain. 

The  house  of  Abbas,  whose  accession  to  the 
throne  was  attended  with  circumstances  of  such 
unparalleled  cruelty  as  to  procure  for  its  first  caliph 
the  epithet  of  Al  Saffah,  or  the  Sanguinary,  ruled 
over  the  Eastern  World  with  various  degrees  of 
authority  for  a  period  of  five  hundred  years.  The 
first  century  beheld  their  power  undiminished ; 
though  the  dismemberment  of  several  provinces 
showed  that  their  government  w^as  inherently  w^eak, 
and  that  the  unwieldly  fabric  could  not  long  main- 
tain its  stability.  Like  other  great  nations  of  an- 
tiquity, the  policy  of  the  Saracens  seemed  better 
adapted  for  the  acquisition  of  empire  than  for  its 
preservation ;  and  though,  by  a  surprising  efibrt  of 
arms,  they  had  compelled  the  world  to  acknowledge 
the  might  of  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful,  they 
could  not  infuse  into  their  system  those  principles 
of  wholesome  and  vigorous  administration  essential 
to  its  perpetuity.  The  incessant  workings  of  fac- 
tion made  it  necessary  to  invest  the  lieutenants  of 
provinces  with  absolute  command ;  and  these,  as 
the  monarchy  grew  feeble  and  degenerate,  were 
enabled  to  make  their  governments  hereditary,  and 
to  assume  every  thing  except  tlie  name  of  kings. 
The  seeds  of  dissolution  were  slowly  matured  by 
foreign  wars  and  domestic  revolts ;  and  the  first 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 


11 


twenty  reigns  are  all  that  can  be  assigned  as  the 
prosperous  era  of  the  Abbassides.  In  Arabia  their 
authority  was  nominally  maintained  by  their  vice-- 
roys  ;  though  the  sheiks  of  the  desert  gradually  re- 
sumed their  ancient  independence,  and  regarded  the 
successors  of  Mohammed  merely  as  the  chiefs  of 
their  religion.  As  their  power  commenced  in  blood, 
so  it  will  be  found  in  the  sequel  to  have  terminated 
its  career  in  the  most  dreadful  scenes  of  cruelty  and 
carnage.  The  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
brought  the  tragic  history  of  their  fallen  race  to  a 
close,  when  the  proud  capital  of  Islam  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Tartars. 


DYNASTY    OF    THE   ABBASSIDES, 

OR    CALIPHS 

OF    BAGDAD. 

A.  D. 

A.  H. 

A.  D. 

A.  H. 

949 

132 

Saflfah 

934 

322 

Rhadi 

754 

136 

Almansor 

941 

329 

Mottaki 

775 

158 

Mahadi 

944 

333 

Mostakfi 

785 

169 

Alhadi 

946 

334 

Almoti 

786 

170 

Haroun  al  Raschid 

974 

363 

Altai 

809 

193 

Alamin 

991 

381 

Alkadir 

813 

198 

Almamoun 

1031 

422 

Alkayem 

833 

218 

Motassem 

1075 

467 

Moktadi 

842 

227 

Vathek 

1094 

487 

Mostader 

847 

232 

Motawakkel 

1118 

512 

Mostarshed 

861 

247 

Montaser 

1135 

529 

Alrashed 

862 

248 

Mostain 

1136 

530 

Moktafi  II. 

866 

252 

Motazz 

1160 

555 

Mostanjed 

867 

255 

Mohtadi 

1170 

566 

Mostadi 

870 

256 

Motamed 

1180 

575 

Almaser 

892 

279 

Motaded 

1225 

622 

Daher 

902 

289. 

Moktafi  I. 

1226 

623 

Mostanser 

90S 

295 

Moktader 

1242 

640 

Mostasem 

932    320 

Kaher 

Of  the  earlier  princes  of  this  dynasty,  several 
were  not  more  distinguished  for  their  warlike  prow- 
ess than  for  their  love  and  encouragement  of  science. 
The  reigns  of  Saffah  and  his  successor  were  chiefly 
occupied  in  extirpating  the  race  of  Ommiah,  whose 
hapless  adherents  were  persecuted  with  unsparing 
vengeance.    Almansor  had  established  his  court  at 


12  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

Hashemiah,  a  city  founded  by  his  brother  on  the 
Bite  or  in  the  vicinity  of  Anbar  ;  but  an  insurrection 
compelled  him  to  resort  to  the  erection  of  a  new- 
capital — and  in  the  145th  year  of  the  Hejira  the 
foundation  of  Bagdad  was  laid.  The  aid  of  astrol- 
ogy was  called  in  to  ascertain  a  propitious  season 
for  commencement ;  and  in  a  short  time  rose  the 
City  of  Peace,  a  splendid  metropolis,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tigris,  which  continued  the  seat  of  imperial 
luxury  for  nearly  five  centuries.  The  rural  scenery 
was  beautiful ;  the  spacious  river  had  a  width  of  250 
yards,  and  a  depth,  when  the  waters  were  at  the 
highest,  of  forty-six  feet.  The  neighbourhood  was 
rich  in  gardens  and  villages ;  and  some  idea  of  its 
ancient  population  may  be  formed,  when  we  learn 
that  800,000  men  and  60,000  women  could  attend  the 
funeral  of  Hanbal,  their  popular  saint.  Yet  all  this 
magnificence  seemed  but  ill  adapted  to  the  temper 
of  Almansor,  whose  extraordinary  penury  obtained 
for  him  the  nickname  of  Abu  Dawanek,  or  Father 
Halfpenny.  After  his  wars  and  buildings,  he  left 
behind  him  600,000,000  drachms  and  24,000,000 
dinars  of  gold  (about  24,850,000/.  sterling) — a  trea- 
sure which  the  vices  or  the  munificence  of  his  chil- 
dren scattered  in  a  few  years.  In  a  single  pilgrim- 
age to  Mecca,  Mahadi  expended  6,000,000  dinars 
(2,775,000Z.),  and  distributed  150,000  dresses  to  the 
poor. 

Haroun  al  Raschid  (Aaron  the  Just),  whose  name 
Eastern  romance  has  made  so  familiar  to  European 
ears,  yielded  to  none  of  his  predecessors  in  the  fame 
and  splendour  of  his  reign.  He  was  eminently  libe- 
ral and  humane  ;  and  excelled  as  a  warrior,  a  states- 
man, and  a  scholar.  He  conversed  familiarly  with 
all  classes  of  his  subjects ;  and  from  these  adven- 
tures sprang  numerous  anecdotes,  which  historians 
aave  been  careful  to  preserve.  To  obviate  the  jeal- 
'jusies  and  collisions  likely  to  arise  from  the  nomina- 
tion of  a  successor,  he  had  proposed  an  equal  division 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  13 

of  the  empire  among  his  sons — a  scheme  which 
created  the  very  evils  it  was  intended  to  avert.  One 
trait  contrary  to  the  general  complexion  of  his 
character  was  his  unrelenting  cruelty  to  the  Barme- 
cides, especially  Yahia  and  his  son  Jaafar,  who  had 
served  him  long,  and  given  the  most  distinguished 
proofs  of  zeal  and  fidelity.  To  this  illustrious  fam- 
ily, well  known  to  the  Western  World  through  the 
same  enchanting  tales  that  have  celebrated  their 
royal  master,  Haroun  had  entrusted  the  entire  ad- 
ministration of  his  extensive  dominions.  But  court 
favour  is  precarious  :  circumstances  confirmed  and 
exasperated  the  caliph's  aversion,  and  death  or  im- 
prisonment extirpated  the  unhappy  race  of  Barmec. 
The  ingratitude  of  Haroun  in  this  instance  inflicted 
its  own  punishment ;  for  with  their  destruction  his 
affairs  fell  into  immediate  and  irretrievable  con- 
fusion. 

The  reign  of  Alamin  was  one  continued  scene 
of  insurrection,  revolt,  and  fraternal  discord.  His 
treasures  were  exhausted ;  and  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency he  was  obliged  to  commit  to  the  crucible 
his  gold  and  silver  plate.  The  precious  contents 
of  his  warehouses  were  openly  exposed  to  sale,  that 
he  might  have  wherewithal  to  stimulate  his  soldiers 
to  exert  themselves  in  defence  of  the  capital,  then 
besieged  by  his  brother  Almamoun,  who  was  pro- 
claimed caliph  in  Khorasan.  A  body  of  5000  mer- 
cenary troops  had  joined  his  standard;  but,  as  he 
had  neither  rich  dresses  nor  pecuniary  rewards  to 
bestow,  they  were  compelled  to  rest  satisfied  with 
a  fumigation  of  their  beards  over  pans  of  civet, 
which  were  supplied  in  great  profusion  by  the  ca- 
liph's orders  ;  and  from  this  species  of  luxury  the 
inhabitants  of  Bagdad  gave  them  in  ridicule  the  ap- 
pellation of  the  Civet  corps.  The  head  of  this  unfor- 
tunate monarch,  who  was  assassinated  by  a  slave, 
exhibited  on  the  walls  of  Bagdad,  announced  to  his 
brother  that  he  enjoyed  an  undivided  throne. 

Vol.  II.— B 


14  CALIPUS    OF    BAGDAD. 

Almamoun,  who,  but  for  his  own  imprudence, 
might  have  rendered  his  government  as  peaceful  as 
it  was  splendid,  is  generally  regarded  as  the  most 
magnificent  of  the  Abbassidan  caliphs.  At  his  nup- 
tials a  thousand  pearls  of  the  largest  size  were 
showered  on  the  head  of  the  bride  ;  while  gifts  of 
lands  and  houses,  scattered  in  lottery-tickets  among 
the  populace,  announced  to  the  astonished  holders 
the  capricious  profusion  of  the  royal  bounty.  Be- 
fore drawing  his  foot  from  th€  stirrup,  he  gave  away 
2,400,000  gold  dinars  (1,110,000/.),  being  four-fifths 
of  the  income  of  a  province.  In  the  encouragement 
of  literature  he  was  the  Maecenas  of  the  East. 
Learned  men  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were  in- 
vited to  resort  to  the  court  of  Bagdad,  where  their 
talents  and  their  works  received  the  most  distin- 
guished tokens  of  imperial  favour ;  and  in  return,  these 
happy  scholars  laboured  to  the  utmost  of  their  power 
in  extolling  the  glory  of  their  generous  patron,  and 
gratifying  his  taste  by  collecting  and  presenting  to 
him  the  most  rare  and  curious  productions  of  ori- 
ental genins.  Notwithstanding  his  many  eminent 
virtues  and  endowments,  his  panegyrists  complain 
that  he  evinced  a  favourable  disposition  to  that 
heretical  doctrine  of  the  Motazalites  which  denies 
to  the  Koran  the  authority  of  a  divine  revelation  ; 
and  the  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  enforcing 
on  his  subjects,  by  severe  persecution,  the  acknow- 
ledgment that  it  was  of  human  origin.  His  capital 
and  his  army  he  threw  into  commotion,  by  com- 
manding them  to  assume  the  green  uniform  instead 
of  the  black,  the  symbol  of  his  family.  His  military 
talents,  which  were  great,  found  exercise  in  making 
incursions  against  the  Greeks,  or  in  quelling  insur- 
rections in  Persia,  Arabia,  and  various  parts  of  his 
dominions ;  for  in  one  year  not  fewer  than  four 
usurpers  made  their  appearance  in  Syria,  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  Western  Africa. 

The   errors   of   Almamoun,   both   political   and 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  15 

spiritual,  devolved  on  his  brother  and  successor,  Mo- 
tassem.  The  name  of  the  Ocionary,  by  which  he  is 
designated  in  history,  originated  from  the  remark- 
able coincidences,  that  he  was  the  eighth  caliph  of  his 
family — the  eighth  in  descent  from  Abbas — he  gained 
eight  distinguislied  victories — eight  sons  of  princes 
were  enrolled  in  his  service — he  possessed  eight 
thousand  male,  and  as  many  female,  slaves — he  had 
eight  sons  and  eight  daughters — he  was  master  of 
eighty  thousand  horses — and  left  in  his  coffers  eight 
minions  of  gold  dinars,  with  eighteen  millions  of 
drachms  of  silver.  His  strength  was  so  prodigious 
that  he  is  said  to  have  carried  a  burden  of  1000 
pounds'  weight ;  and  such  was  the  muscular  power 
of  his  arm,  that  he  could  hold  a  sheep  in  each  hand 
until  his  attendants  flayed  them  alive.  Among 
other  luxuries  he  kept  130,000  piebald  horses  in  his 
stables  at  Samarra,  and  maintained  50,000  boys  at 
court,  to  each  of  whom  he  furnished  a  satchel  or 
little  bag  for  provisions.  He  was  the  first  caliph 
that  added  to  his  name  the  title  of  Billah,  or  B^AUahy 
equivalent  to  the  Dei  Gratia  of  Christian  sove- 
reigns. 

Vathek  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and 
so  charitable  to  the  poor,  that  not  a  single  beggar, 
through  the  whole  course  of  his  reign,  was  to  be 
met  with  in  his  dominions.  His  brother  Motawak- 
kel  displayed  all  the  caprice  and  cruelty  of  a  tyrant. 
He  evinced  his  displeasure  against  the  Jews  and 
Christians  by  compelling  them  to  use  wooden  in- 
stead of  iron  stirrups — to  wear  leathern  girdles,  to 
have  badges  on  their  clothes,  and  to  paint  the  figures 
of  devils  or  hogs  and  apes  on  their  door,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  IMussulmans.  Among  other 
instances  of  his  folly  and  depravity,  it  is  recorded 
that  one  of  the  amusements  in  which  he  chose  to 
indulge  himself  was  to  give  a  magnificent  entertain^ 
ment,  and  in  the  moment  of  convivial  gayety  to  turn 
a  lion  loose  among  the  terrified  guests.    Sometimes 


16  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

he  would  introduce  a  snake  into  the  sleeve  of  an  un- 
fortunate courtier,  or  cast  leathern  jars  full  of  scor- 
pions into  a  crowded  assembly,  or  in  the  middle  of 
the  hall  where  he  had  prepared  a  banquet  for  his 
favourites,  without  suffering  any  one  to  rise  from 
the  table  or  change  his  place.  Besides  these  mis- 
chievous diversions,  he  exercised  great  severity  on 
his  subjects,  of  whom  not  less  than  80,000  perished 
in  the  Armenian  rebellion.  Persons  of  distinction, 
who  had  the  misfortune  to  incur  his  displeasure,  he 
enclosed  in  an  iron  stove  lined  with  pointed  nails, 
which  he  caused  to  be  heated  in  proportion  to  the 
enormity  of  the  crime  he  intended  to  punish.  But 
the  tyrant  met  with  his  deserts,  having  fallen  by  the 
hands  of  his  own  slaves,  who  employed  against  his 
life  those  scimitars  which  he  had  recently  distrib- 
uted among  them  for  the  defence  of  his  person  and 
throne.  From  the  death  of  this  prince  the  destina- 
tion of  the  crown  was  usually  fixed  by  the  fierce 
and  mercenary  chiefs  of  the  Tartar  slaves  or  guards, 
and  in  their  power  it  continued  for  twelve  succes- 
sions, including  a  period  of  about  eighty-four  years. 
Yet  with  all  this  weakness  a  show  of  external 
strength  and  magnificence  was  maintained.  Of 
Moktader's  court  and  camp  at  Bagdad  (A.  D.  917) 
we  find  a  curious  picture  in  Abulfeda,  little  accord- 
ant with  the  declining  state  of  his  authority.  "  The 
caliph's  whole  army,"  says  he,  "  both  horse  and 
foot,  was  under  arms,  which  together  made  a  body 
of  160,000  men.  His  state-officers,  the  favourite 
slaves,  stood  near  him  in  splendid  apparel,  their 
belts  glittering  with  gold  and  gems.  Near  them 
were  7000  eunuchs ;  4000  of  them  white,  the  re- 
mainder black.  The  porters  or  doorkeepers  were 
in  number  700.  Barges  and  boats  with  the  most 
superb  decorations  were  seen  floating  upon  the  Ti- 
gris. Nor  was  the  palace  itself  less  splendid,  in 
which  were  hung  up  38,000  pieces  of  tapestry; 
12,500  of  which  were  of  silk,  embroidered  with  gold. 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  17 

The  carpets  on  the  floor  were  22,000.  A  hundred 
lions  were  brought  out  with  a  keeper  to  each. 
Among  the  other  spectacles  of  rare  and  stupendous 
luxury,  was  a  tree  of  gold  and  silver,  spreading  into 
eighteen  larger  branches,  on  which,  and  on  the 
lesser  boughs,  sat  a  variety  of  birds,  made  of  the 
same  precious  metals,  as  well  as  the  leaves  of  the 
tree.  The  birds  warbled  their  natural  harmony, 
each  in  its  own  strains ;  the  whole  being  effected 
by  the  spontaneous  motions  of  machinery."  Such 
was  the  marvellous  luxury  of  the  Abbassides,  seated 
amid  the  riches  of  the  East.  The  ambassadors  of 
the  Greek  Emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus, 
on  whose  account  such  courtly  grandeur  was  dis- 
played, were  led  by  the  vizier,  himself  splendidly 
dressed,  through  all  this  magnificence,  to  the  foot 
of  the  caliph's  throne. 

The  arts  by  which  this  ingenious  splendour  was 
supported  seem  then  to  have  flourished  in  great  per- 
fection; and  we  are  told  that  Hallaj,  a  famous  jug- 
gler and  fanatic,  who  was  executed  at  Bagdad  (A .  D. 
922),  could  astonish  his  numerous  spectators  by 
making  winter  fruits  appear  in  summer,  and  summer 
fruits  in  winter  ;  and  even  bring  showers  of  drachms 
from  the  clouds,  by  merely  stretching  out  his  hands 
in  the  air.  The  viziers  and  other  officers  of  state 
imitated  the  extravagance  of  their  master.  Kimar, 
the  emir  of  Mostadi,  carried  his  ideas  of  magnifi- 
cence so  far,  that  in  his  chamber  of  retirement,  a 
chain  of  gold  was  suspended  from  the  roof  to  rest 
his  hands  on ;  and  in  the  same  apartment  stood  a 
golden  vase,  charged  with  musk,  amber,  and  the 
most  expensive  aromatics. 

But  the  nations  of  the  East  had  learned  to  despise 
these  idle  pageantries,  and  trample  on  the  degraded 
successors  of  the  prophet.  Of  the  first  twenty 
caliphs  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  nine  had  been  cut  off 
by  poison,  hunger,  or  assassination.  Kaher  was 
dethroned  by  the  Tartar  guards ;  the  searing  instni- 

B2 


18  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.. 

merit  was  passed  across  his  eyes,  and  in  this 
wretched  state  he  is  said  to  have  prolonged  an 
existence  of  sixteen  years,  during  which  he  was 
regularly  seen  every  Friday,  with  other  blind  men- 
dicants, at  the  gates  of  the  principal  mosque  of  his 
own  capital,  soliciting  the  alms  of  the  charitable. 
Of  the  succeeding  monarchs,  five,  Mottaki,  Mostakfi, 
Mostarched,  Alrashed,  and  Mostasem,  met  the  same 
fate.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  power  of  the 
Abbassides,  after  Rhadi,  was  reduced  to  an  empty 
pageant, — a  mere  gilded  phantom.  Sometimes  their 
condition  was  so  degraded,  that  they  were  confined 
like  prisoners  in  their  palace,  exposed  to  blows  and 
insults,  and  scarcely  allowed  the  ordinary  means  of 
subsistence.  So  entirely  was  Rhadi  the  creature  of 
Ibn  Rayek,  his  Emir  al  Omra  (commander  of  com- 
manders), an  officer  first  instituted  by  him,  and  supe- 
rior to  the  vizier,  that  he  could  not  draw  a  single 
dinar  from  the  treasury  for  his  own  use  without  the 
permission  of  this  absolute  minister,  who  even 
officiated  in  the  great  mosque,  and  had  his  name 
inserted  in  the  public  prayers. 

Usurpers  had  risen  up  in  almost  every  province, 
and  erected  themselves  into  independent  sovereigns. 
The  dominions  of  the  once  mighty  Emperors  of  the 
Faithful  were  nearly  circumscribed  within  the  walls 
of  Bagdad,  which  still  contained  an  innumerable 
multitude  of  inhabitants,  vain  of  their  past  fortune, 
discontented  with  their  present  state,  and  oppressed 
by  the  demands  of  a  needy  government,  whose 
exchequer  had  heretofore  been  replenished  by 
the  spoil  and  the  tribute  of  nations.  Irak,  the 
greater  part  of  Persia,  the  provinces  round  the  Cas- 
pian and  beyond  the  Oxus,  had  recognised  other 
masters.  Syria  and  Arabia  no  longer  obeyed  the 
caliph ;  while  the  rulers  of  Egypt  and  the  West  had 
withdrawn  their  allegiance  from  the  humbled  pon- 
tiff on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  Corruption  and 
venality  pervaded  every  department  of  the  state ; 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  19 

the  office  of  cadi  of  Bagdad,  first  exposed  to  sale  in 
the  reign  of  Almoti,  was  purchased  for  200,000 
drachms  (4583/.  6s.  Sd.) ;  and  we  learn  from  Abulfeda, 
that  all  the  chief  offices  of  government  were  dis- 
posed of  in  a  similar  manner.  The  administration 
was  sometimes  put  into  the  hands  of  women  belong- 
ing to  the  court ;  and  among  the  secretaries  and 
counsellors  of  Moktader  was  a  damsel  named  Ya- 
mek,  who  was  so  thoroughly  versed  in  the  weightier 
points  of  legislation,  that  the  judges  in  the  determi- 
nation of  criminal  causes,  as  well  as  the  doctors  of 
the  law  in  their  most  important  decisions,  were  fre- 
quently obliged  to  have  recourse  to  her  for  assist- 
ance. Religious  differences  gave  rise  to  bitter  and 
incessant  animosities.  In  every  profession  which 
allowed  room  for  two  persons,  the  one  was  gene- 
rally a  votary,  and  the  other  a  persecutor,  of  the 
sect  of  Ali.  The  rigid  disciples  of  the  famous  Han- 
bal  carried  their  phrensy  so  far  as  to  invade  the  pri- 
vileges and  the  pleasures  of  domestic  life.  Enter- 
ing the  houses  of  the  citizens,  they  spilled  the  wine 
wherever  they  found  it,  beat  the  musicians,  and 
broke  their  instruments  to  pieces ;  nor  could  they 
be  reduced  to  submission  except  by  the  publication 
of  a  severe  edict. 

This  state  of  corruption  and  licentiousness  was 
occasionally  checked  by  a  firm  and  determined 
hand  ;  and  some  of  the  last  of  the  Abbassidan  princes 
acted  with  an  energy  that  would  have  done  credit 
to  the  brightest  days  of  the  caliphate.  The  policy 
of  Alkayem  and  Moctadi  led  them  to  strengthen 
their  interests  by  powerful  matrimonial  alliances. 
The  latter  espoused  the  daughter  of  Malek  Shah, 
who  was  received  at  Bagdad  amid  an  illumination 
of  waxen  torches,  "  which  echpsed  the  stars,  and 
set  the  firmament  in  a  blaze."  Of  the  luxury  or 
expenditure  of  their  nuptial  banquet,  some  estimate 
may  be  formed  from  the  assertion,  that  in  the  arti- 
cle of  sugar  alone,  500  tons  weight  was  consumed. 


so  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

Such  was  the  vigilant  prudence  of  Mostader,  that 
during  the  whole  of  his  reign  not  a  single  insurrec- 
tion occurred  to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  his  gov- 
ernment. His  son  Mostarched  has  obtained  a  dis- 
tinguished name  among  the  few  latter  sovereigns  of 
the  house  of  Abbas,  who,  in  the  decline  of  its 
power,  displayed  some  portion  of  zeal  to  revive  the 
expiring  lustre  of  the  caliphate.  Mostanjed  was  a 
prince  of  considerable  energy,  and  scrupled  not  to 
throw  some  unfortunate  ladies  of  the  harem  into  the 
Tigris,  for  intriguing  against  his  successor. 

tinder  Mostanser  and  Mostasem  the  taste  for  ex- 
pensive magnificence  revived.  Previous  to  one  of 
the  religious  festivals,  the  former  ordered  his  jew- 
eller to  prepare  avast  quantity  of  small  golden  balls, 
which  he  caused  to  be  distributed  among  his  domes- 
tics, and  shot  from  pellet-bows  over  all  parts  of  the 
city.  Mostasem,  the  last  of  his  line,  whose  power 
had  dwindled  to  a  mere  pre-eminence  in  dignity, 
affected  a  higher  degree  of  pomp  and  ceremony  than 
the  most  splendid  of  his  predecessors.  The  greatest 
princes  were  with  difficulty  allowed  access  to  his 
presence.  In  imitation  of  the  Kaaba,  the  gate  of 
his  palace  was  furnished  with  a  stone  and  apiece  of 
black  velvet,  to  which  his  subjects  paid  almost  divine 
honours ;  and  when  the  principal  officers  of  state 
made  their  court,  they  did  homage  to  the  proud  pon- 
tiff, by  rubbing  their  eyes  and  forehead  on  these  vene- 
rable emblems,  and  kissing  them  with  profound 
humility.  When  he  went  abroad  he  generally  wore 
a  mask  or  a  veil,  to  inspire  his  people  with  the 
greater  respect ;  as  he  passed,  the  crowded  streets 
were  too  narrow  to  contain  the  multitudes  that 
flocked  to  behold  him ;  and  the  windows  or  balco- 
nies were  let  at  an  extravagant  price. 

The  few  conquests  achieved  by  the  Abbassides 
were  chiefly  due  to  the  talents  of  their  earlier 
princes ;  and  of  these  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a 
cursory  sketch  before  recording  the  entire  downfall 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  21 

of  their  house.  During  the  sanguinary  feuds  that 
followed,  and  confirmed  their  elevation  to  the 
throne,  the  Greeks  had  stolen  the  opportunity  of 
avenging  their  wrongs  and  enlarging  their  limits. 
With  an  army  of  100,000  men  they  had  invaded 
Syria,  and  defeated  a  body  of  Arabs,  of  whom  they 
killed  2000,  with  five  emirs  or  principal  officers. 
But  a  severe  retribution  was  exacted  by  Mahadi, 
who  despatched  a  force  of  95,000  Persians  and 
Arabs  to  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  under  his 
second  son  the  renowned  Haroun  al  Raschid.  A 
body  of  the  imperial  troops  was  defeated,  and  seve- 
ral of  the  provinces  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword. 
A  woman  then  occupied  the  Byzantine  throne  ;  and 
the  encampment  of  the  Saracens  on  the  opposite 
heights  of  Scutari  informed  Irene,  in  her  palace  at 
Constantinople,  of  the  loss  of  her  troops  and  the 
devastation  of  her  territories.  The  helpless  sove- 
reign, or  her  ministers,  consented  to  sign  an  igno- 
minious peace ;  nor  could  the  exchange  of  some 
royal  presents  disguise  the  annual  tribute  of  70,000 
pieces  of  gold,  which  was  imposed  on  the  Roman 
empire. 

Fifteen  years  afterward  (A.  D.  796),  when  Ha- 
roun had  ascended  the  throne,  he  renewed  his  incur- 
sions into  the  imperial  dominions,  and  ravaged  Lydia 
and  Lycaonia,  whence  he  carried  oflf  an  immense 
quantity  of  booty.  Eight  times  were  these  preda- 
tory inroads  repeated ;  and  as  often  as  the  Greeks 
declined  the  regular  payment,  they  were  taught  to 
feel  that  a  month  of  depredation  was  more  costly 
than  a  year  of  tribute.  On  the  deposition  and  ban- 
ishment of  the  empress,  her  successor  Nicephorus 
resolved  to  obliterate  this  badge  of  servitude  and 
disgrace,  which,  in  his  epistle  to  the  caliph,  he 
ascribed  to  the  weakness  of  a  female  reign.  "  The 
queen,"  said  he,  borrowing  his  allusion  from  the 
game  of  chess,  "  considered  you  as  a  rook,  and  her- 
self a  pawn.     That  pusillanimous  woman  submitted 


22  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

to  pay  a  tribute,  the  double  of  which  she  ought  to 
have  exacted  from  the  barbarians.  Restore,  there- 
fore, the  fruits  of  j'-our  injustice,  or  abide  the  deter- 
mination of  the  sword."  At  these  words,  by  way 
of  bravado,  the  ambassador  made  Haroun  a  present 
of  several  excellent  sabres.  The  caliph  smiled  at 
the  threat,  and  drawing  his  famous  scimitar  {Sam- 
samah),  a  weapon  of  historic  or  fabulous  renown,  he 
cut  them  asunder  one  by  one,  like  so  many  radishes, 
before  the  eyes  of  the  astonished  Greeks,  without 
seeming  to  exert  the  strength  of  his  arm  or  turning 
the  edge  of  his  well-tempered  blade.  He  then  dic- 
tated an  epistle  of  tremendous  brevity :  "  In  the 
name  of  the  most  merciful  God !  Haroun  al  Raschid, 
Commander  of  the  Faithful,  to  Nicephorus  the  Ro- 
man dog,  I  have  read  thy  letter,  thou  son  of  an  unbe- 
lieving mother.  Thou  shalt  not  hear, — thou  shalt 
behold  my  reply."  A  war  of  desolation  ensued. 
With  a  force  of  100,000  men,  Haroun  invaded  the 
imperial  territories.  Nicephorus  was  overthrown 
in  Lycaonia,  with  the  loss  of  40,000  of  his  best 
troops,  having  received  three  wounds  in  the  action. 
In  this  campaign  the  Saracens  ravaged  the  adja- 
cent provinces,  and  took  a  considerable  number  of 
the  principal  towns  ;  after  which  they  compelled  the 
emperor  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which  he  engaged 
to  pay  annually  300,000  dinars  (138,750/.),  and  ab- 
stain from  hostile  encroachments  in  future.  On 
the  faith  of  this  stipulation  the  caliph  withdrew  into 
Western  Irak  ;  but  the  distance  of  500  miles,  and 
the  inclemency  of  the  season,  which  set  in  with  un- 
usual severity,  encouraged  Nicephorus  to  violate 
the  truce  by  assailing  the  Moslem  dominions.  The 
Commander  of  the  Faithful  was  not  slow  to  punish 
the  aggression.  In  a  rapid  march  during  the  depth 
of  winter,  he  passed  the  snows  of  Mount  Taurus, 
and  landed  a  regular  army  of  135,000  men  in  the 
plains  of  Phrygia.  A  large  body  of  volunteers 
swelled  this  huge  armament  to  300,000  persons. 


ii 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD*  23 

Like  a  host  of  locusts  they  swept  the  surface  of  Asia 
Minor  far  beyond  Tayana  and  Ancyra,  and  invested 
the  Pontic  Heraclea,  now  a  paltry  town,  but  then  a 
flourishing-  place,  whose  ships  had  conveyed  home 
the  intrepid  Xenophon  and  his  ten  thousand ;  and 
whose  walls,  1200  years  afterward,  were  capable  of 
sustaining  a  month's  siege  agcfinst  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Arabs.  The  ruin  was  complete  ;  the 
city  was  reduced  to  ashes ;  and,  besides  immense 
spoil,  16,000  captives  enhanced  the  triumph  of  the 
conqueror. 

Several  other  towns  met  a  similar  fate.  Cyprus 
was  attacked,  and  the  inhabitants  pillaged  without 
mercy ;  after  which,  the  "  Roman  dog"  was  com- 
pelled to  retract  his  haughty  defiance,  and  submit 
to  an  annual  assessment.  As  a  further  mark  of  hi& 
degradation,  the  coin  of  the  tribute-money  was 
stamped  with  the  image  and  superscription  of  Ha- 
roun  and  his  three  sons.  It  v/as  perhaps  for- 
tunate for  Nicephorus,  as  the  terms  might  have 
been  still  more  humiliating,  that  his  adversary  was 
hastily  called  away  to  check  the  progress  of  revolt 
at  Samarcand,  where  the  usurper,  Ibn  al  Leith,  had 
assumed  the  title  of  cahph.  The  insurrection  spread 
over  the  Transoxian  provinces,  and  extended  also 
to  Khorasan  and  Kerman.  Haroun  had  left  his 
favourite  palace  at  Racca  to  march  against  the 
rebels,  when  death  put  an  end  to  his  triumphant 
career.  His  general  Harethmah,  laid  siege  to  Sa- 
marcand, and  conveyed  the  refractory  chief  in  chains 
to  the  presence  of  Almamoun. 

The  Emperor  Theophilus,  one  of  the  most  aetive 
and  high-spirited  princes  that  reigned  at  Constan- 
tinople during  the  middle  ages,  had  led  an  army  five 
times  in  person  against  the  Saracens.  In  the  last 
of  these  expeditions  (A.  D.  838)  he  invaded  Syria  at 
the  head  of  a  hundred  thousand  men,  and  besieged 
the  obscure  town  of  Sozometra,  the  birth-place  of 
Motassem,  which  he  took  and  levelled  with  JJje 


24  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

ground.  The  male  inhabitants  Avere  all  put  to  the 
sword,  and  the  women  and  children  carried  into 
captivity.  At  Malatia,  in  Cappadocia,  1000  females 
were  made  prisoners  ;  these,  and  the  natives  of  other 
towns  which  he  reduced,  were  treated  with  exces- 
sive cruelty,  their  eyes  put  out,  or  their  noses  and 
ears  cut  off.  The  drms  of  Motassem  were  at  that 
moment  occupied  with  the  revolt  of  the  Persian  im- 
postor Babec,  who  was  taken  in  837  and  put  to  an 
ignominious  death.  This  fanatic  had  for  twenty 
years  maintained  his  power  against  the  caliphs ; 
during  which  time  he  had  massacred  above  250,000 
individuals.  Nud,  one  of  his  officers,  employed  in 
these  executions,  acknowledged  that  he  had  de- 
stroyed with  his  own  hand  more  than  twenty  thou- 
sand Moslems. 

On  the  suppression  of  this  rebellion,  Motassem 
conducted  a  formidable  army  into  Asia  Minor.  An- 
cyra  was  laid  in  ashes,  and  not  a  town  or  fortress 
belonging  to  the  Christians  could  withstand  him. 
Amorium  was  invested  ;  and  after  an  obstinate  siege 
of  fifty-five  days,  and  the  loss  of  30,000  Greeks,  the 
place  was  betrayed  by  one  of  the  inhabitants,  wlio 
had  abjured  the  Christian  religion.  The  walls  were 
levelled  with  the  ground,  and  30,000  wretched  cap- 
tives gratified  the  vengeance  of  the  conqueror.  The- 
ophilus  had  marched  to  the  relief  of  his  native  city ; 
but  he  was  opposed  by  a  body  of  ten  thousand  Sa- 
racens. The  two  armies  came  to  a  general  action 
at  Dazymenum.  The  Arabs  at  first  were  broken  ; 
but  the  Greeks,  in  the  pursuit,  were  so  galled  by  the 
arrows  of  the  Turks,  that  they  were  in  their  turn 
thrown  into  complete  disorder;  and  had  not  the 
enemy's  bowstrings  been  damped  and  relaxed  by  the 
evening  rain,  very  few  of  the  Christians  would  have 
escaped  with  their  emperor  from  the  field  of  battle. 
Tired  of  destruction,  Motassem  returned  to  his 
new  palace  of  Samarra. 

The  loss  of  70,000  Moslems  in  the  siege  of  Amo- 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  25 

riura  entailed  a  severer  fate  on  the  imhappy  captives, 
who  were  treated  hke  the  most  atrocious  criminals. 
Mutual  necessity  sometimes  extorted  the  exchange 
or  ransom  of  prisoners  ;  but,  in  the  religious  conflict 
of  these  great  empires,  peace  was  without  con- 
fidence, and  war  without  mercy.  Quarter  was  sel- 
dom given  in  the  field ;  those  who  escaped  the  edge 
of  the  sword  were  condemned  to  hopeless  servi- 
tude, or  cruel  torture ;  and  a  Catholic  emperor 
relates,  with  visible  satisfaction,  the  execution  of 
the  Saracens  of  Crete,  who  were  flayed  alive,  or 
plunged  into  caldrons  of  boiling  oil.  Vathek  nego- 
tiated with  Michael  III.  for  an  exchange  of  captives. 
The  Christians  and  the  Moslems  were  drawn  up  on 
the  banks  of  the  Lamus,  near  Tarsus.  Of  the  Arabs, 
4460  men,  800  women  and  children,  and  100  con- 
federates were  exchanged  for  an  equal  number  of 
Greeks  ;  and  more  might  have  been  redeemed,  had 
not  the  caliph  excluded  from  the  benefit  of  the  car- 
tel all  heretics  who  refused  to  assert  the  creation  of 
the  Koran.  The  two  bands  passed  each  other  on 
the  middle  of  the  bridge,  and  the  shouts  of  Allah 
akbar !  on  the  one  side,  and  Kyrie  eleison !  on  the 
other,  announced  the  grateful  tidings  that  they  had 
joined  the  respective  camps  of  their  countrymen. 

Under  tho  feeble  successors  of  Moktader  and 
Rhadi,  irruptions  were  occasionally  made  into  the 
Grecian  territories,  both  by  sea  and  land ;  but,  in 
proportion  as  the  Eastern  World  v/as  convulsed  and 
broken,  the  Byzantine  empire  had  recovered  its 
prosperity,  especially  after  the  accession  of  the 
Basilian  race,  whose  wisdom  and  talents  infused  a 
new  strength  into  the  government.  The  lofty  titles 
of  the  Morning  Star  ard  the  Death  of  the  Saracens 
were  applied  in  the  public  acclamations  to  Nicepho- 
rus  Phocas,  a  sovereign  as  renowned  in  the  camp  as 
he  was  unpopular  in  the  city.  The  twelve  years' 
reign  (A.  D.  963-975),  or  military  command  of  this 
prince,  and  of  his  assassin  and  successor  John  Zi- 

VoL.  IL— C 


26  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

misces,  the  two  heroes  of  the  age,  form  the  most 
splendid  period  of  the  Byzantine  annals.  In  a  series 
of  bloody  combats,  they  extended  their  victories 
from  the  mountainous  defiles  of  Cappadocia  to  the 
deserts  of  Bagdad.  The  conqest  of  Cilicia  may  be 
said  to  have  been  achieved  by  the  surrender  of  Ma- 
sifia  or  Mopsuestia,  and  Tarsus.  In  the  siege  of  the 
former  city,  which  was  taken  by  assault,  200,000 
Moslems,  including  probably  the  inhabitants  of  the 
dependant  districts,  were  predestined  to  death  or 
slavery.  Tarsus  was  reduced  by  the  slow  progress- 
of  famine.  The  besieged  held  out  in  the  hope  of 
succour  from  Egypt ;  and  no  sooner  had  the  Sara^ 
cens  yielded  on  honourable  terms,  than  they  were 
mortified  by  the  distant  view  of  their  supplies,  the 
arrival  of  which  by  sea  was  too  late  to  avail  them. 
The  Mohammedan  population  were  dismissed  in 
safety  to  the  confines  of  Syria,  and  their  places 
replenished  with  a  colony  of  Christians. 

Having  forced  and  secured  the  narrow  passes  of 
Mount  Amanus,  the  Greeks  repeatedly  carried  their 
arms  into  the  heart  of  Syria.  Antioch  and  Aleppo 
were  once  more  restored  to  the  faith  of  Christ  and 
the  dominion  of  the  Caesars.  Nicephorus,  with  a 
strong  army,  invested  the  latter  place,  and  having 
applied  his  military  engines  to  the  walls,  he  made 
his  attack  with  great  fury.  After  a  fruitless  assault 
of  three  days,  a  dissension  of  the  inhabitants  left  the 
gates  unguarded,  and  afforded  the  Greeks  an  oppor- 
tunity of  entering  the  town.  Vast  multitudes  of 
men  and  women  were  put  to  the  sword.  In  the 
palace  the  victors  seized  a  well-furnished  magazine 
of  arms,  a  stable  of  1400  mules,  and  300  bags  of  sil- 
ver and  gold.  Ten  thousand  youths  of  both  sexes 
were  led  into  captivity  ;  the  weight  of  the  precious 
spoil  exceeded  the  strength  and  number  of  the 
beasts  of  burden ;  the  remainder  was  consumed  with- 
fire,  and  after  a  licentious  possession  of  ten  days, 
the  Romans  abandoned  the  scene  of  desolation.    In. 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  27 

their  Syrian  inroads,  the  Greeks  reduced  more  than 
100  cities  ;  eighteen  pulpits  of  the  principal  mosques 
were  committed  to  the  ^imes,  to  expiate  the  sacri- 
lege of  the  disciples  of  Mohammed.  On  the  shift- 
ing scene  of  conquest,  the  names  of  Hierapolis, 
Apamea,  Emesa,  Acre,  and  Baalbec,  again  appear. 
The  Emperor  Zimisces  encamped  in  the  Paradise 
of  Damascus,  where  he  accepted  the  ransom  of  a 
submissive  people  ;  and  the  torrent  was  only  stopped 
at  the  impregnable  fortress  of  Tripoli,  on  the  Phe- 
nician  coast. 

From  the  passage  of  Mount  Taurus  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  Euphrates  had  been  impervious  to  the 
Greeks  since  the  days  of  Heraclius.  It  was  crossed 
by  the  victorious  Zimisces:  and  the  historian  may 
imitate  the  speed  with  which  he  overran  the  once 
famous  cities  of  Samos-ata,  Edessa,  Martyropolis, 
Amida,  and  Nisibis,  the  ancient  limit  of  the  Roman 
empire  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Tigris.  His 
ardour  was  quickened  by  the  desire  of  grasping  the 
imaginary  wealth  of  the  Abbassides  in  their  own 
capital.  But  Bagdad  was  relieved  of  its  apprehen- 
sions by  his  sudden  retreat.  Satiated  with  glory 
and  laden  with  plunder,  Zimisces  returned  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  displayed  in  his  triumph  the 
silks  and  aromatics  of  Asia,  with  300  myriads  of 
gold  and  silver.  The  Saracen  states  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  this  transient  hurricane.  On  the  de- 
parture of  the  Greeks,  the  fugitive  princes  returned 
lo  their  capitals  ;  the  Nestorian  and  Jacobite  Chris- 
tians broke  their  involuntary  oaths  and  exchanged 
<heir  allegiance  ;  while  the  Moslems  again  purified 
iheir  temples,  and  overturned  the  images  of  the 
«iainis  and  martyrs.  Antioch,  with  the  towns  of 
Cilicia  and  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  were  the  only  per- 
manent ai\d  useful  accessions  to  the  Byzantine  ter- 
ritories Oi  iiil  tne  imperial  conquests  in  the  East. 

But  the  ibcovory  of  so  many  cities  and  provinces 
added  nothing  ;o  vKe  exhausted  power  of  the  Abbas* 


28  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

sides ;  and,  in  contemplating  the  fallen  fabric  of 
their  greatness,  it  is  easy  to  discover  the  principal 
causes  which  hastened  that  catastrophe.  When  the 
Arabian  conquerors  had  spread  themselves  over  dis- 
tant countries,  and  were  mingled  with  the  servile 
crowds  of  Persia,  Syria,  and  Eg}'pt,  they  insensibly 
lost  the  hardy  and  martial  virtues  of  the  desert.  The 
Turks  and  Tartars,  who  dwelt  nortliward  of  the 
Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  possessed  the  daring  enter- 
prise peculiar  to  their  climate  ;  and  from  their  hordes 
the  mercenary  forces  of  the  caliphs  were  frequently 
recruited.  Those  robust  youths,  either  taken  in 
war  or  purchased  in  trade,  were  educated  in  the 
exercises  of  the  field  and  the  profession  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan faith.  From  being  slaves  they  were 
imbodied  into  household  troops,  and  placed  in  arms 
round  the  throne  of  their  benefactor.  Motassera 
was  the  first  that  introduced  the  dangerous  expe- 
dierit  of  Turkish  guards,  of  whom  he  received  above 
50,000  into  his  capital.  If  his  own  troops  had  been 
factious,  the  foreign  militia  to  whom  he  had  intrusted 
his  person  proved  still  more  refractory.  From  pro- 
tectors they  soon  became  lords  over  the  Commander 
of  the  F^aithful,  usurping  dominion  both  in  the  pa- 
lace and  in  the  provinces.  Their  licentious  conduct 
provoked  the  public  indignation,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  one  leading  cause  of  detaching  the  Moslems  from 
the  allegiance  which  was  due  to  their  lawful  sove- 
reigns, and  ultimately  of  subverting  the  throne. 

Another  formidable  enemy  to  the  stability  of  the 
Abbassides  was  the  religious  sect  of  the  Karma- 
thians,  who  sprang  up  in  the  vicinity  of  Cufa  about 
the  277th  year  of  the  Hejira.  Their  founder  was  an 
Arabian  fanatic  of  the  name  of  Karmath,  who  as- 
sumed to  himself  many  lofty  and  incomprehensible 
titles,  The  Guide,  The  Demonstration,  The  Word, 
The  Holy  Ghost,  The  Camel.  He  aff"ected  great 
sanctity  and  strictness  of  life  ;  claimed  to  be  the 
herald  of  the  Messiah,  the  representative  of  John 


CALIPHS    or    BAGDAD.  29 

the  Baptist,  Gabriel,  and  the  imams  descended  from 
Ali.  He  altered  the  established  forms  of  worship , 
relaxed  the  duties  of  ablution  and  fasting;  per- 
mitted the  use  of  wine  and  forbidden  foods ;  preached 
Jigainst  the  utility  of  the  pilgrimage  ;  and  enjoined 
his  disciples  to  pray  fifty  times  daily.  He  chose 
twelve  apostles  to  govern  his  flock  and  propagate 
his  doctrines ;  and  such  was  the  success  of  these 
missionaries  among  the  Bedouins,  as  to  threaten 
Arabia  with  a  new  revolution.  From  Bahrein  and 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  these  zealots  spread 
their  conquests  far  and  wide,  over  Chaldea,  Syria, 
and  Mesopotamia.  As  they  disowned  the  title  and 
abhorred  the  worldly  pomp  of  the  caliphs,  they  per- 
secuted their  subjects  with  the  bitterest  hostility. 

Many  a  bloody  conflict  ensued ;  but  the  mercena- 
ries of  Bagdad  were  terrified  to  face  an  enemy 
107,000  strong,  who  neither  asked  nor  accepted 
quarter.  The  cities  of  Racca,  Baalbec,  Cufa,  and 
Bussora  were  pillaged  ;  Bagdad  itself  was  filled  with 
consternation ;  for  the  daring  Abu  Taher,  with  no 
more  than  500  horse,  had  advanced  to  Anber,  and 
threatened  to  attack  the  City  of  Peace.  A  lieuten- 
ant had  recommended  the  Karmathian  chief  to  with- 
draw ;  when  the  latter,  to  evince  the  determination 
of  his  troops,  turned  to  three  of  his  companions,  and 
at  his  command  the  first  plunged  a  dagger  into  his 
own  breast ;  the  second  leapt  into  the  Tigris ;  and 
the  third  cast  himself  headlong  from  a  precipice. 
"  Relate,"  continued  he,  "  to  your  master  what  you 
have  seen ;  before  the  evening  he  shall  be  chained 
among  my  dogs."  The  Saracen  camp  was  sur- 
prised, and  before  the  evening  the  menace  was  lite- 
rally executed.  Mecca  was  an  object  of  aversion 
to  the  Karmathians,  and  in  the  317th  year  of  the 
Hejira  (A.  D.  929)  Abu  Taher  entered  the  sacred 
city  at  the  season  of  the  pilgrimage.  Every  spe- 
cies of  cruelty  and  profanation  was  committed. 
Thirty  thousand  citizens  and  strangers  were  put  to 

C2 


30  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

the  sword;  and  the  most  venerable  relics  of  the 
Moslem  faith  were  carried  off  or  trampled  in  the 
dust.  A  fter  this  bloody  and  sacrilegio  us  exploit,  the 
turbulent  fanatics  continued  to  infest  the  borders  of 
Irak,  Syria,  and  Egypt ;  and  though  they  received 
occasional  checks  from  the  Mohammedan  arms, 
they  were  for  two  centuries  the  pest  and  scourge  of 
the  caliphate. 

The  unwieldy  magnitude  of  the  Saracen  empire 
itself,  and  the  number  of  independent  principalities 
that  sprung  up  in  its  bosom,  were  other  obvious  and 
powerful  accessories  to  its  destruction.  Almamoun 
might  proudly  assert  that  it  was  easier  for  him  to 
rule  the  East  and  the  West  than  to  manage  a  chess- 
board of  two  feet  square  ;  yet  errors  in  the  game  of 
politics,  though  less  palpable,  are  no  less  fatal  than 
mistakes  in  the  artificial  management  of  rooks  and 
pawns ;  and  it  is  easy  to  discover,  that  so  early  as 
the  reign  of  this  caliph,  the  authority  of  the  crown 
in  the  remote  provhices  was  already  impaired.  Dis- 
tance slackened  the  reins  of  order  and  obedience 
among  the  subjects  of  the  Abbassides.  A  change 
was  scarcely  visible  so  long  as  the  lieutenants  of 
the  caliph  were  content  with  their  vicarious  title  ; 
so  long  as  they  merely  solicited  for  themselves,  or 
their  sons,  a  renewal  of  the  imperial  gi'ant ;  and  still 
maintained  on  the  coin,  and  in  the  pulpits  of  the 
mosque,  the  name  and  the  prerogatives  of  the  Com- 
mander of  the  Faithful.  But,  in  the  settled  and 
hereditary  exercise  of  power,  the  viceroys  assumed 
the  pomp  and  attributes  of  royalty.  The  alterna- 
tive of  peace  or  war,  of  punishment  or  reward,  de- 
pended solely  on  their  will ;  and  the  revenues  of  the 
government  were  reser^'ed  for  local  services,  or 
private  magnificence.  Instead  of  a  regular  supply 
of  men  and  money,  the  successors  of  Mohammed 
were  flattered  with  the  ostentatious  gift  of  an  ele- 
phant, a  cast  of  hawks,  a  few  bales  of  silk,  or  a 
supply  of  musk  and  amber. 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  31 

Persia,  from  being  a  province,  became  itself  the 
heritage  of  several  petty  dynasties,  w^ho  successively 
threatened  the  capital  and  usurped  the  power  of  the 
Abbassides.     The  earliest  of  these  was  that  of  the 
Taherites, — the  posterity  of  the  valiant  Taher,  who 
had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
sons  of  Haroun.     His  descendants,  or  successors, 
reigned   in   Khorasan   till  the   fourth   generation, 
when  they  were   supplanted  by  the  Sofferides,  a 
/name   borrowed  from  the  trade  of  their  founder, 
Jacob  ibn  Leith,  who  exercised  the  humble  craft  of 
a  brasier,  and  afterward  the  less  honourable  pro- 
fession of  a  robber.     This  dynasty  was  overthrown 
by  the  arms  of  the  powerful  Tartar  chief  Ismail 
Samani,  whom  the  caliph  Motamed  had  invited  to 
Jiis  assistance.     In  the  year  873  he  passed  the  Oxus 
with  10,000  cavalry,  so  poor  that  their  stirrups  were 
of  wood,  and  so  brave  that  they  vanquished  the 
Soffarian  army,  eight  times  more  numerous  than 
their  own.     For  several  generations  the  Samanides 
exercised  a  turbulent  and  precarious  rule  over  Kho- 
rasan, Seistan,  Balkh,  and  the  Transoxian  provinces, 
including  the  cities  of  Samarcand  and  Bokhara  ;  but 
they  were   at  length  swept  away  by  more  potent 
usurpers.     The  Bowides  or  Dilemites,  so  called  from 
their  ancestor  Buiyah,  a  fisherman  of  Dilem,  were 
their  rivals  and  their  enemies ;  and  about  the  middle 
of  the  tenth  century  the  Persian   throne  and  the 
sceptre  of  the  caliphs  were  usurped  by  three  power- 
ful brothers,  Ali,  Ahmed,  and  Hassan,  on  whom  the 
feeble  Mostakfi  bestowed  the  highest  dignities,  and 
the  pompous  titles  of  Moezodowlah  (Column  of  the 
State),   Amadodowlah   (Pillar  of  the   Throne),   and 
Rocnodowlah  (Angular  Stone  of  the  Court) ;  epithets 
which  discover  the  fallen  majesty  of  the  Saracen 
emperors.     Under  this  dynasty  the   language   and 
genius  of  Persia  revived ;  and  the  authority  of  the 
Arabs  beyond  the  Tigris  may  be  said  to  have  termi- 


S2  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

nated  within  little  more  than  three  centuries  after 
the  death  of  Mohammed. 

Mesopotamia,  with  the  important  cities  of  Mosul 
and  Aleppo,  were  occupied  by  the  Arabian  princes 
or  sultans  of  the  tribe  of  Hamadan.  The  poets  of 
their  court  could  repeat  without  a  blush,  that  nature 
had  formed  their  countenances  for  beauty,  their 
tongues  for  eloquence,  and  their  hands  for  liberality 
and  valour.  But  their  elevation  and  their  reign 
were  marked  by  scenes  of  treachery,  murder,  and 
parricide.  The  wealth  and  dominion  of  the  Bowides 
and  various  other  petty  dynasties,  yielded  in  their 
turn  to  the  victorious  arms  of  the  first  sultans  of 
Ghizni,  whose  authority,  for  a  short  period,  extended 
over  a  great  part  of  Persia.  But  the  chief  glory  of 
these  monarchs  arose  from  their  holy  wars  against 
the  infidels  of  India.  Subuktagi,  originally  a  Turk- 
ish slave,  took  Cabul,  and  overran  the  fine  prov- 
ince of  the  Punjaub.  Mahmoud  inherited  the  ruling 
passions  of  his  father, — devotion  to  religion,  and 
love  of  military  glory.  Sensible  of  the  import- 
ance of  such  an  ally,  the  caliph  encouraged  him  to 
obtain  a  never-dying  name  in  this  world,  and  eternal 
happiness  in  the  next,  by  spreading  the  religion  of 
the  Prophet ;  and,  in  imitation  of  other  popes,  con- 
ferred on  him  the  titles  of  The  Right  Hand  and 
Protector  of  the  Faith.  The  other  vowed  in  return, 
that  his  sword  through  life  should  be  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  Islam  ;  and  it  would  be  difficult  to 
compute  the  millions  whom  he  forced,  by  that 
powerful  instrument  of  conversion,  to  embrace  its 
tenets.  His  eldest  son,  Musaood,  was  dignified  by 
the  caliph  with  the  title  of  The  Light  of  Posterity 
and  The  Beauty  of  Nations.  On  the  second  was 
conferred  the  appellation  of  The  Aim  of  Fortune 
and  The  Column  of  the  State.  The  last  services  of 
Mahmoud,  after  subduing  a  considerable  part  of 
India  in  twelve  expeditions,  were  against  the  Turks, 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  33 

who  had  invaded  his  Persian  dominions  and  obtained 
several  advantages  over  his  generals.  He  expired 
at  his  Palace  of  Felicity  after  a  reign  of  thirty-five 
years,  being  the  first  Mohammedan  prince  that  bore 
the  title  of  sultan.  His  successors  were  involved 
in  fraternal  disputes  and  military  rebellions.  They 
lost  the  whole  of  their  possessions  in  Persia,  and 
their  history  for  above  a  century,  till  their  final  ex- 
tinction by  the  Tartars,  presents  only  a  mournful 
detail  of  petty  wars  and  massacres. 

It  was  from  these  warlike  hordes,  whose  prowess 
was  soon  felt  from  China  and  India  to  the  barren 
wilds  of  Northern  Europe,  that  the  tottering  throne 
of  the  Abbassides  received  its  final  overthrow. 
After  the  death  of  Mahmoud,  the  Seljuks,  under 
Togrul  Beg,  the  first  prince  of  his  dynasty  (1038), 
subdued  Jorjan,  Tabaristan,  Azerbijan,  Korasm, 
Irak,  and  Khorasan.  The  increasing  insolence  of 
the  Turkish  guards  had  compelled  Alkayem  to  im- 
plore the  assistance  of  this  Tartar  chief,  who  had 
now  assumed  the  title  and  state  of  a  sovereign.  He 
was  received  by  the  caliph  at  Bagdad  with  the 
greatest  respect.  At  this  interview  Alkayem  ap- 
peared with  all  the  mummery  of  state  that  belonged 
to  his  high  office.  He  was  seated  on  a  throne,  which 
was  concealed  by  a  dark  veil.  The  celebrated  boneda, 
or  black  mantle  of  the  Abbassides,  was  thrown  over 
his  shoulders,  and  in  his  right  hand  he  held  the  staff 
of  Mohammed.  Togrul  approached  the  successor 
af  the  Prophet  on  foot,  accompanied  by  his  nobles, 
ivho,  laying  aside  their  arms,  had  joined  in  the  pro- 
cession. He  kissed  the  ground,  stood  for  a  short 
time  in  a  respectful  posture,  and  was  then  led  to  the 
caliph,  near  whom  he  was  placed  on  another  throne. 
His  commission  was  then  read,  appointing  him  King 
of  Bagdad,  Viceroy  of  the  Caliph,  and  Lord  of  all  the 
Mohammedans.  He  was  invested  with  seven  dresses 
(the  usual  symbol  of  oflUcial  preferment),  and  had 
seven  slaves  bestowed  on  him, — a  ceremony  imply- 


34  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

ing-  that  he  was  authorized  to  rule  the  seven  regions 
subject  to  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful.  He  was 
likewise  adorned  with  a  collar  and  bracelets  ;  a  veil 
of  gold  stuff,  scented  with  musk,  was  thrown  over 
his  head,  on  which  two  crowns  were  placed,  one  for 
Arabia,  the  other  for  Persia  ;  while  two  swords 
were  girt  on  his  loins,  to  signify  that  he  was  ruler 
both  of  the  East  and  the  West. 

To  consohdate  this  copartnery  of  interests,  the 
caliph  married  the  sister  of  his  new  ally ;  while  the 
latter  shocked  the  pride  of  the  house  of  Abbas  by 
espousing  Zeida,  the  daughter  of  their  spiritual  chief. 
The  nuptials  were  celebrated  at  Rhe,  the  Suljuk 
capital,  with  great  splendour ;  but  as  the  royal  bride- 
groom had  arrived  at  the  age  of  seventy,  their  hap- 
piness was  only  of  a  few  months'  duration.  Togrul 
and  his  successors,  Alp  Arslan  and  Malek  Shah,  were 
zealous  Moslems  of  the  Sonnee  sect ;  and  it  was 
owing  to  this  circumstance  that  the  caliphs  under 
their  administration  enjoyed  an  ease  and  dignity  far 
superior  to  what  fell  to  their  lot  while  in  the  hands 
of  the  Bowid&s.  His  victories  over  the  Greeks,  and 
his  cruel  persecution  of  the  Christians,  on  whose 
necks  he  fixed  a  horseshoe,  or  large  iron  collar,  as 
a  mark  of  ignominy,  have  placed  Alp  Arslan,  accord- 
ing to  the  judgment  of  the  Mohammedans,  among 
the  most  distinguished  sovereigns  of  Asia. 

The  kingdom  founded  by  Togrul,  which  extended 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  borders  of  China, 
and  the  various  principalities  into  which  it  was 
divided,  fell  in  their  turn  before  that  great  destroyer 
of  the  human  race  Zingis  Khan  (A.  D.  1202),  and  his 
grandson  Hoolaku.  The  former  subdued  the  whole 
of  Tartary ;  and  before  his  death  his  vast  territories 
reached  from  the  Indus  to  the  Volga,  and  from  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  snowy  wastes 
of  Siberia.  The  carnage  he  committed  was  terrible  ; 
for  his  armies,  which  exceeded  000,000  men,  or,  in 
the  language  of  oriental  hyperbole,  "  outnumbered 


CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD.  H*> 

the  drops  of  rain,"  were  never  idle.  The  conquests 
of  the  father  were  extended  by  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors into  Russia,  Bulgaria,  and  Poland ;  but  it 
was  to  Hoolaku  that  fortune  reserved  the  aehiev- 
ment  of  destroying  the  capital  of  Islam  and  the  last 
of  the  Abbassidan  caliphs.  With  120,000  horse  and 
1000  families  of  Chinese  artificers,  skilled  in  the  art  of 
throwing  naphtlia  and  other  inflammable  substances, 
he  quitted  the  Mogul  territory ;  and,  traversing 
the  plains  of  Irak,  he  appeared  (October  1757)  at 
the  head  of  this  prodigious  force  before  the  walls  of 
Bagdad.  The  caliph  courted  accommodation  by 
sending  him  valuable  presents :  and  it  was  not  till 
all  hopes  of  peace  had  departed,  that  he  discovered 
the  treachery  of  his  prime  minister,  by  whose 
advice  he  had  dispersed  his  troops,  and  left  the 
capital  defenceless.  Forgetting  their  own  weakness, 
the  citizens  assumed  a  tone  of  defiance,  and  treated 
with  scorn  the  proposal  to  surrender.  "Who  is 
Hoolaku,  and  what  is  his  power,  that  he  should  pre-- 
sume  to  make  war  on  the  house  of  Abbas'?  Their 
empire  is  derived  from  God  alone ;  and,  therefore, 
no  prince  can  meet  with  success  that  endeavours  to 
overturn  it.  Let  him  return  to  Hamadan,  and  we 
will  intercede  with  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful 
to  forgive  the  enormous  crime  he  has  committed." 
The  Tartar  smiled  at  this  affectation  of  imperturba- 
ble majesty,  and  being  joined  by  all  his  detachments, 
immediately  laid  seige  to  the  metropolis. 

On  each  side  of  the  city  mounds  and  trenches 
were  drawn,  with  high  towers,  in  which  the  assail- 
ants planted  their  stone-engines,  fire-engines,  and 
other  warlike  machines.  For  the  space  of  nearly 
two  months  the  inhabitants,  though  exposed  to  every 
species  of  violence  and  injury,  defended  themselves 
with  considerable  obstinacy.  But  the  enemy  having 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  walls,  and  every 
thing  being  ready  for  storming  the  place,  Mostasem 
resolved  to  commit  his  person  to  the  hazard  of  an 


36  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD. 

interview  with  the  Tartar  chief.  Accompanied  by 
his  two  sons,  together  with  a  numerous  group  of 
relatives  and  the  most  distinguished  members  of  his 
court,  he  quitted  Bagdad  by  the  Gate  of  Peace,  and 
approached  the  paviUon  of  Hoolaku.  The  cahph 
and  a  few  of  his  attendants  were  admitted  without 
difficulty,  but  the  remainder  were  excluded  ;  and 
many  of  them  were  doomed,  the  very  same  day,  to 
the  fatal  distinction  of  becoming  the  first  victims  of 
the  conqueror's  unsparing  ferocity.  In  this  melan- 
choly retmue  were  about  700  women  belonging  ta 
the  caliph  and  his  sons,  with  300  eunuchs.  The 
traitorous  vizier  was  set  at  liberty  ;  but  his  master 
was  detained  in  captivity.  The  two  sons  were  con- 
denmed  to  death ;  but  the  eldest  had  already  found 
a  more  honourable  grave  in  defending  one  of  the 
gates  of  his  father's  capital. 

On  Friday,  the  ninth  of  Saphar  (Feb.  14,  A.  D. 
1258),  Hoolaku  made  his  entry  into  Bagdad,  where 
he  treated  his  generals  and  principal  officers  to  a 
sumptuous  entertainment.  To  this  display  of  bar- 
barous festivity  and  triumph  the  last  of  the  Abbas- 
sides  was  now  summoned,  and  required,  as  the  host 
of  his  conqueror,  to  produce  something  that  should 
be  worthy  the  acceptance  of  such  an  exalted  guest. 
Conceiving  that  nothing  more  was  intended  than 
expressed,  the  unhappy  monarch  gave  direction  that 
a  present  of  2000  costly  and  magnificent  robes,  2000 
dinars  of  gold  (925/.),  together  with  a  variety  of  gold 
and  silver  plate,  vases,  and  other  articles,  enriched 
with  jewels  of  the  greatest  price  and  beauty,  should 
be  selected  from  his  treasury  and  wardrobe,  and  laid 
in  the  usual  style,  in  trays,  before  Hoolaku.  Sur- 
veying them  with  an  eye  of  contempt,  the  proud 
Mogul  distributed  every  article  among  his  attend- 
ants. "  The  whole  of  thy  visible  property, '  ad- 
dressing Mostasem,  "  as  well  as  that  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Bagdad,  is  already  at  the  disposal  of  my 
followers.     Of  that  it  was  needless  to  make  an 


CALIPHS    OF  BAGDAD.  37 

offering.  What  we  require  of  thee  is  to  give  us  some 
indication  with  respect  to  thy  hidden  treasures." 
The  object  of  the  barbarian  could  no  longer  be  mis- 
understood. The  captive  prince  pointed  in  s-ilence 
to  the  area  in  the  court  of  his  palace  ;  and  on  open- 
ing the  ground  there  was  discovered  what  might 
have  been  amply  sufficient  to  glut  the  utmost  crav- 
ings of  avarice; — a  tank,  or  covered  reservoir, 
loaded  to  the  brim  with  ingots  of  solid  gold,  each 
weighing  100  meskals,  or  nearly  a  pound  and  a 
quarter  avoirdupois.  This  immense  wealth  did  not 
satiate  the  vengeance  of  the  remorseless  Hoolaku, 
who  is  said  to  have  kept  his  illustrious  but  unfor- 
tunate prisoner  several  days  without  food  or  sus- 
tenance of  any  kind.  When  the  pangs  of  hunger 
could  no  longer  be  endured,  the  wretched  Mostasem 
sent  to  implore  relief ;  but  the  tyrant,  in  mockery 
of  his  distress,  ordered  his  attendants  to  set  before 
him  a  dish  full  of  gold  and  jewels.  The  last  act  of 
the  tragedy  approached  ;  and  it  became  a  subject  of 
deliberation  how  the  sacred  person  of  the  caliph 
should  be  disposed  of,  as  it  was  superstitiously  be- 
lieved that  the  shedding  of  his  blood  would  be  fol- 
lowed by  some  awful  and  tremendous  convulsion  of 
nature.  "  To  quiet  these  uneasy  apprehensions,  the 
ferocious  Tartar  resolved  that  he  should  be  sewed 
up  in  a  leathern  bag ;  others  say  wrapt  tightly  in 
felt,  or  coarse  hair  blankets,  and  in  this  manner 
dragged  through  the  streets  of  the  city  until  he  ex- 
pired ;  every  joint  and  bone  of  his  frame  being 
pounded  as  in  a  mortar.  The  rest  of  his  children, 
his  brothers,  his  relations,  his  household  officers,  and 
every  agent  of  his  government,  were  cut  off  with  the 
same  unsparing  cruelty.  The  devoted  city  was 
now  surrendered  to  the  license  of  the  Mogul  Hrmy, 
and,  for  the  space  of  forty  days,  such  a  scene  of  pil- 
lage, massacre,  and  blood  ensued,  as  outraged  hu- 
manity, and  almost  surpassed  the  bounds  of  be- 
lief. The  Persian  authors  assure  us,  that  in  the 
Vol.  II.— D 


38  CALIPHS    OF    BAGDAD 

city  alone  the  number  of  the  slain  amounted  to 
800,000  persons,  exclusive  of  the  multitudes  that 
were  butchered  in  the  adjoining  villages.  If  this 
estimate  be  correct,  we  may  believe  that  the  waters 
of  the  Tigris  were  reddened,  and  its  usual  dimen- 
sions swelled,  with  the  tributary  streams  of  human 
gore.  This  memorable  revolution  terminated  the 
dynasty  of  the  Abbassides,  after  it  had  subsisted  for 
a  period  of  523  lunar  years.  The  regal  authority 
of  this  celebrated  race,  and  the  greater  part  of  their 
remaining  dominions,  now  devolved  on  the  Mogul 
princes  of  the  blood  of  Zingis.  Since  that  event 
Bagdad  has  witnessed  various  other  sieges  and 
revolutions.  It  was  burnt  and  plundered  by  the 
ferocious  Timur(A.  D.  1401),  who  erected  a  pyramid 
of  human  heads  on  its  ruins.  In  1637,  it  incurred 
the  vengeance  of  Amurath  IV.,  the  Turkish  sultan  : 
300,000  troops  encamped  under  its  walls,  and  by 
the  incessant  play  of  200  pieces  of  artillery,  its 
towers  and  ramparts  were  levelled  with  tlie  ground. 
The  vaults  and  cellars  were  filled  with  the  dead  bodies 
of  those  who  had  fled  to  these  recesses  for  security. 
The  sobs  and  cries  of  15,000  women  and  children 
were  drowned  by  the  shouts  of  the  enemy  exulting 
over  the  fallen  Queen  of  the  East ;  and  the  trembling 
remnant  is  said  to  have  owed  their  preservation  to 
the  music  of  Shah  Kali,  whose  touching  strains  are 
alleged  to  have  melted  Amurath  to  tears  of  compas- 
sion. Since  that  period  the  once  illustrious  city  of 
the  Abbassides  lias  been  degraded  to  the  seat  of  a 
Turkish  pashalic.  In  the  present  century  it  can 
number  200,000  inhabitants.  The  rich  merchants 
and  the  beautiful  princesses  of  the  A  rabian  Tales 
have  all  disappeared ;  but  it  retains  the  tomb  of  the 
charming  Zobeide,  and  can  b^ast  of  its  numerous 
gardens  and  its  well  stocked  bazars.  The  citizens 
live  in  greater  security  than  is  usually  enjoyed  in 
the  East ;  and  a  European  might  fancy  that  the 
shade  of  old  Haroun  al  Raschid  still  preserves  the 


CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA.  39 

same  admirable  order  which  was  formerly  main- 
tained among-  all  classes  by  the  terror  of  meeting 
that  redoubted  caliph  as  he  wandered  the  streets  of 
his  capital  in  disguise. 


CHAPTER  II. 

CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA,  EGYPT,  AND    SPAIN. 

The  Aglabites  or  Caliphs  of  Cairoan — Military  Exploits  of  the 
Western  Arabs— Reduction  of  Crete — Conquest  of  Sicily — 
Invasion  of  Italy — Pillage  of  Rome — Siege  of  Gaeta— Naval 
Victory  of  the  Christians — Subjugation  of  Corsica  and  Sardi- 
nia by  the  Siracens — Expulsion  of  the  Aglabites — Moorish 
Kingdom  of  Timbuctoo — Dynasty  of  the  Fatimites  in  Egypt 
— Their  Subversion  by  Saladin,  Founder  of  the  Ayubites — 
Dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  in  Spain  founded  by  Abdalrahman 
— Their  Power  and  Magnificence — Extinction  of  the  Caliph- 
ate— Conquest  of  Granada  by  Ferdinand — Wealth  and  Popu- 
lation of  the  Moorish  capitals — The  Government,  Arms,  and 
Military  Tactics  of  the  Arabs — Revenue,  Trade,  and  Marine 
of  Spain  under  the  Saracens — Reduction  of  Sicily  by  the 
Normans,  and  final  Overthrow  of  the  Mohammedan  power  in 
Europe. 

Various  dynasties  of  Arab  princes  rose  and  succes- 
sively ruled  in  Africa  and  Egypt.  In  the  year  of 
Christianity  797,  Ibrahim  ibn  Aglab  had  been  sent, 
by  the  Caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid,  governor  into  the 
western  parts  of  Africa.  Fifteen  years  after,  en- 
couraged by  the  rebellious  state  of  the  Moslem  em- 
pire at  the  accession  of  Almamoun,  he  assumed  to 
himself  an  almost  absolute  power  in  that  country, 
and  conquered  a  large  extent  of  territory,  over  which 
he  and  his  descendants  ruled  as  sovereign  princes, 
under  the  name  of  the  Aglabites,  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury. This  new  empire,  whose  capital  was  Cairoan, 
included  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Maurit     ia  and 


40  CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA. 

Massylia,  with  the  repubhc  of  Carthage.  Several 
of  these  cahphs  took  the  name  of  Mohammed,  and 
signahzed  their  reigns  by  exploits,  both  naval  and 
military,  not  unworthy  the  heroic  age  of  the  Moslem 
conquests.  Numerous  bodies  of  their  troops  occa- 
sionally served  in  the  mercenary  armies  of  Bagdad, 
and  assisted  the  Abbassides  in  maintaining  their  au- 
thority over  the  insurrectionary  provinces  of  the 
East. 

It  was  in  the  time  of  Almamoun  that  the  islands 
of  Crete  and  Sicily  were  subdued  by  the  Western 
Arabs.  The  former  of  these  conquests  is  passed 
m  silence  by  their  own  writers,  who  were  indiffer- 
ent to  the  fame  of  Jupiter  and  Minos.  But  we  learn 
from  the  Byzantine  historians,  that  a  piratical  band 
of  Andalusian  volunteers,  discontented  with  the 
climate  or  the  government  of  Spain,  had  set  out  with 
only  a  few  galleys  on  an  exploratory  voyage,  in  quest 
of  a  more  genial  settlement.  Landing  at  Alexan- 
dria, they  were  introduced  into  that  city  by  a  re- 
bellious faction,  where  they  cut  in  pieces  both 
friends  and  foes,  pillaged  the  churches  and  mosques, 
sold  above  6000  Christian  captives,  and  maintained 
their  station  in  the  capital  of  Egypt,  till  they  were 
repulsed  by  the  forces  of  Almamoun,  who  had  taken 
the  command  in  person.  In  their  excursions  among 
the  Mediterranean  islands  they  had  seen  and  tasted 
of  the  fertility  of  Crete ;  and  with  forty  galleys 
they  soon  returned  to  make  a  more  serious  attack. 
Loaded  with  spoil  they  prepared  to  retreat;  but, 
on  descending  to  the  shore,  they  were  dismayed 
to  find  their  vessels  in  flames,  and  still  more  sur- 
prised when  their  chief  Abu  Caab  confessed  him- 
self the  author  of  the  disaster.  In  their  indignation 
they  suspected  him  of  madness  or  treachery.  "  Of 
what  do  you  complain  V  said  the  crafty  leader  in 
reply  to  their  clamours.  "  I  have  lirought  you  to 
a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.  Here  is  your 
true  country ;  repose  from  your  toils,  and  forget 


CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA,  41 

the  barren  place  of  your  nativity.  As  for  your 
wives  and  children,  your  beautiful  captives  v^^ill 
supply  the  place  of  the  one  ;  and  in  their  embraces 
you  will  soon  become  the  fathers  of  a  new  progeny." 

Their  first  habitation  was  their  camp,  surrounded 
with  a  ditch  and  a  rampart,  in  the  Bay  of  Suda. 
An  apostate  monk  pointed  out  to  them  a  more  de- 
sirable residence ;  and  the  modern  appellation  of 
Candia,  from  Candax,  the  fortress  and  colony  of  the 
Spanish  Arabs,  has  superseded  the  ancient  name, 
and  been  extended  to  the  whole  island.  Of  its  thirty 
cities  the  inhabitants  of  Cydonia  alone  had  courage 
to  retain  their  freedom  and  their  Christianity.  The 
timbers  of  Mount  Ida  soon  repaired  the  loss  of  the 
Saracen  navy ;  and  during  a  period  of  138  years, 
these  licentious  freebooters  defied  the  curses  and  the 
arms  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  until  they  were 
extirpated  by  the  valour  of  Nicephorus  Phocas; 
'*  when  the  natives,"  to  use  the  words  of  a  contem- 
porary writer,  "  exchanged  the  detested  supersti- 
tion of  the  Hagarenes  for  the  baptism  and  discipline 
of  the  Catholic  church."  In  the  reign  of  Motamed 
they  captured  the  imperial  fleet  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  put  5000  Greeks  to  the  sword  at  Melazzo 
in  Sicily.  A  short  time  after,  they  reduced  the 
island  of  Lemnos,  ravaged  without  control  the  coasts 
of  Asia,  made  themselves  masters  of  Thessalonica, 
and  threatened  to  invest  Constantinople. 

Sicily  had  been  repeatedly  attacked  by  the  West- 
ern Arabs  ;  but  its  loss  was  occasioned  by  an  act  of 
injudicious  rigour.  Euphemius,  an  amorous  youth, 
who  had  stolen  a  nun  from  her  cloister,  was  sen- 
tenced by  the  emperor  to  the  amputation  of  his 
tongue.  He  appealed  to  the  Saracens  of  Africa,  who 
sent  him  back  with  a  fleet  of  100  ships,  and  an  army 
of  700  horse  and  10,000  foot.  These  troops  landed 
at  Mazara,  near  the  ancient  Silenus,  and  after  some 
partial  victories,  in  which  they  made  themselves 
masters  of  Ragusa,  Messina,  Emia,  and  other  places, 

D2 


42  CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA. 

they  invested  Syracuse.  This  city  was  delivered 
by  the  Greeks ;  the  apostate  youth  was  slain,  and 
his  African  auxiliaries  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  feeding  on  the  flesh  of  their  own  horses.  In 
their  turn  they  were  assisted  by  a  powerful  rein- 
forcement from  Andalusia;  and  by  degrees  the 
western  and  largest  portion  of  the  island  was  sub- 
dued. Palermo  became  the  seat  of  the  emir  or 
governor  (A.  H.  228),  and  the  navy  of  the  Saracens 
rode  with  ease  in  its  commodious  harbour.  Syra- 
cuse resisted  the  Moslem  yoke  for  a  period  of  fifty 
years ;  and  in  the  last  fatal  siege,  her  citizens  dis- 
played some  remnant  of  the  valour  which  had  for- 
merly baffled  the  power  of  Athens  and  Carthage. 
The  cruelties  and  exactions  of  the  Arabs  were  enor- 
mous. The  silver  plate  of  the  cathedral  weighed 
5000  pounds,  and  the  entire  spoil  was  computed  at 
1,000,000  pieces  of  gold  (about  462,500/.). 

For  more  than  two  centuries  the  emperors  of 
Constantinople,  the  princes  of  Beneventum,  and  the 
Moslem  armies,  contended  in  all  the  horrors  of  war 
for  the  possession  of  Sicily.  By  degrees,  the  reli- 
gion and  language  of  the  Greeks  were  eradicated ; 
and  such  was  the  docility  of  the  new  proselytes,  that 
15,000  boys  submitted  to  be  circumcised  and  clothed 
on  the  same  day  with  the  son  of  the  African  caliph. 
In  the  year  953,  Hassan,  governor  of  Sicily,  sent  a 
powerful  army  to  the  coast  of  Italy.  At  Reggio 
the  innabitants  and  the  garrison  had  fled ;  but  the 
imperial  forces  were  overthrown,  and  their  com- 
mander, with  several  ofliicers  of  note,  taken  prison- 
ers in  the  action.  Successive  squadrons  issued  from 
the  harbours  of  Palermo,  Biserta,  and  Tunis.  A 
hundred  and  fifty  towns  of  Calabria  and  Campania 
were  attacked  and  pillaged ;  and  had  the  Saracens 
been  united,  the  land  of  Romulus,  and  the  patrimony 
of  St.  Peter's  successors,  must  have  fallen  an  easy 
and  glorious  accession  to  the  empire  of  Mohammed- 
No  event  in  the  military  history  of  the  Arabs 


CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA.  43 

awakens  our  curiosity  or  surprise  more  than  their 
invasion  of  the  Roman  territories.  Who  could  have 
foretold  that  the  roving  Bedouins  should  have  in- 
sulted the  majesty  of  the  Caesars  in  their  own  capi- 
tal, or  raised  their  tecbar  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
eternal  city  ]  In  full  possession  of  Sicily,  these 
"  Sons  of  Satan,"  as  the  Librarian  Anastasius  with 
pious  indignation  calls  them,  entered  with  a  fleet 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  and  presumed  to  approach 
the  venerated  metropolis  of  the  Christian  world. 
The  gates  and  ramparts  were  guarded  by  a  trem- 
bhng  people  ;  but  the  church  and  tombs  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  without  the  walls,  whose  sanctity  had 
been  respected  by  Goths,  Vandals  and  Lombards, 
were  pillaged  by  the  rapacious  disciples  of  the  Ko- 
ran. The  images,  or  Christian  idols,  were  stripped 
of  their  costly  offerings  ;  a  silver  altar  was  torn  away 
from  the  shrine  of  St.  Peter;  and  if  any  thing 
escaped  their  destructive  hands,  it  must  be  imputed 
to  the  haste  rather  than  the  scruples  of  the  spoilers. 
But  their  divisions  saved  the  capital.  Directing 
their  course  along  the  Appian  Way,  they  pillaged 
Fundi,  and  laid  siege  to  Gaeta.  In  the  hour  of  dan- 
her  the  Romans  implored  the  protection  of  the 
Latin  sovereign  Lothaire ;  but  the  imperial  army 
was  overthrown  by  a  detatchment  of  the  Moslems- 
The  church  and  the  city  owed  their  safety  to  the 
courage  and  energy  of  Pope  Leo  IV.,  who,  fiom 
the  pressing  crisis  of  affairs,  was  unanimously  caQed 
to  the  chair  without  the  forms  and  intrigues  of  an 
election. 

The  welcome  news  that  the  siege  of  Gaeta  had 
been  raised,  and  a  part  of  the  enemy  with  their  sa- 
crilegious plunder  immersed  in  the  waves,  gave  the 
harassed  Romans  the  assurance  of  a  short  respite. 
But  the  storm  soon  burst  upon  them  with  redoubled 
violence.  A  fleet  of  Arabs  and  Moors  from  Africa, 
after  a  short  refreshment  in  the  harbours  of  Sar- 
dinia, again  cast  anchor  off  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber, 


44  CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA. 

sixteen  miles  from  the  city.  The  vigilance  of  the 
pontiff  had  provided  for  the  emergency,  by  his 
alliance  with  the  maritime  states  of  Naples  and 
Amalfi  -,  and  in  the  hour  of  danger  their  galleys 
appeared  in  the  port  of  Ostia,  under  the  command 
of  Caesarius,  a  noble  and  valiant  youth,  who  had  al- 
ready humbled  the  naval  pride  of  the  Saracens, 
Leo  hastened  to  meet  the  descent  of  the  enemy,  not 
in  the  garb  of  a  warrior,  but  with  the  solemnity  of 
a  Christian  bishop.  The  allies  and  city  bands  in 
arms  attended  him  to  Ostia,  where  they  were  re- 
viewed, and  animated  by  his  paternal  benediction. 
The  pious  soldiers  kissed  his  feet,  received  the  com- 
munion with  martial  devotion,  and  listened  to  the 
papal  supplication,  that  the  same  God  who  had  sup- 
ported St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  on  the  waters  of  the 
sea,  \yould  strengthen  the  hands  of  his  champions 
against  the  adversaries  of  the  Holy  Faith.  The 
Moslems  preferred  a  similar  prayer  against  the  in- 
fidels, and  with  equal  resolution  advanced  to  the 
attack.  The  Christian  galleys  bravely  maintained 
their  advantageous  position  along  the  coast,  and 
victory  was  inclined  to  their  side,  when  it  was  less 
glorfously  terminated  in  their  favour  by  a  sudden 
tempest,  which  confounded  and  appalled  the  stout- 
est mariners.  While  they  enjoyed  the  shelter  of  a 
friendly  harbour,  the  Saracens  were  scattered  and 
dashed  in  pieces  among  the  neighbouring  rocks  and 
islands.  Those  who  escaped  the  disasters  of  ship- 
wreck and  hunger  neither  found  nor  deserved  mercy 
at  the  hands  of  their  implacable  pursuers.  The 
sword  and  the  gibbet  reduced  the  dangerous  multi- 
tude of  captives  ;  and  the  remainder  were  usefully 
employed  in  restoring  the  fortifications  and  sacred 
edifices  which  they  had  attempted  to  destroy. 

Among  the  spoils  of  this  naval  victory,  thirteen 
Arabian  bows  of  pure  and  massy  silver  were  sus- 
pended round  the  shrines  of  the  apostles,  where  the 
pontiff,  at  the  head  of  the  wariiors  and  citizens,  paid 


CALIPHS    OF   AFRICA.  45 

their  grateful  devotions  for  so  happy  a  dehverance. 
By  the  care  of  Leo,  Rome  was  soon  restored  to  its 
wonted  splendour.  The  churches  were  renewed 
and  embelhshed;  nearly  4000  pounds  of  silver  were 
consecrated  to  repair  the  losses  of  St.  Peter ;  and 
his  sanctuary  was  decorated  with  a  plate  of  gold, 
weighing  216  pounds,  embossed  with  portraits  of 
the  pope  and  the  emperor,  and  encircled  with  a 
etring  of  pearls.  Had  the  Arabs  been  inspired  with 
the  impetuous  energies  of  the  first  soldiers  of  the 
Koran,  a  different  fate  might  have  awaited  the  capi- 
tal of  Christendom. 

In  the  year  810  Corsica  submitted  to  the  Moham- 
medan yoke.  A  powerful  Saracen,  named  Lanza 
Ancisa,  introduced  some  troops  into  the  island; 
and,  by  the  united  influence  of  arms  and  eloquence, 
the  inhabitants  were  induced  to  expel  the  Greeks 
and  embrace  the  Moslem  faith.  For  166  years 
Lanza  and  his  successors  were  sovereigns  of  the 
island.  At  the  close  of  that  period,  the  zeal  of  the 
Christians  in  Italy  burst  into  a  flame  of  war ;  the 
last  king  was  driven  away,  and  Corsica  again  ac- 
knowledged the  pope  for  her  supreme  lord.  Sar- 
dinia was  invaded  and  subdued  about  the  same  time. 
The  natives  did  not  long  submit  to  the  yoke  ;  they 
expelled  their  assailants  ;  and,  for  a  safeguard  against 
future  aggressions,  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  at  that  period 
King  of  France  and  Emperor  of  the  West.  The 
successors  of  Charlemagne  were  as  feeble  as  the 
representatives  of  the  Prophet  in  the  F]ast ;  and  the 
Sardinians,  driven  to  their  own  resources,  invested 
their  leaders,  under  the  title  of  judges,  with  full 
military  power  ;  and,'  for  a  while,  the  island  was  re- 
lieved from  the  inroads  of  the  Africans  and  Spanish 
Moors.  At  the  end  of  the  ninth  or  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century,  it  seems  to  have  again  become  a 
Moslem  province,  and  100  years  elapsed  before  its 
state  was  changed.     Pope  John  XVIII. ,  touched 


46  CALIPHS    OF    AFRICA. 

with  its  unhappy  condition,  invited  the  Cathohc 
princes  to  relieve  it  from  the  cruel  devastations  of 
the  Arabs.  The  piety  and  cupidity  of  the  republics 
of  Genoa  and  Pisa  were  awakened  at  the  call ;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  dreadful  annoyance  of  the  Greek 
fire,  they  succeeded  in  annihilating  the  po\ver  of  the 
Saracens.  The  liberators  contended  long  and  ve- 
hemently for  the  possession  of  the  island,  and  the 
skill  of  Italian  diplomacy  was  exhausted  in  settling 
the  rival  claims.  The  Emperor  Frederic  Barba- 
rossa,  in  the  year  1165,  bestowed  the  investiture  of 
the  whole  island  on  the  Pisans.  These  measures, 
however,  were  ill  calculated  to  procure  repose  ;  an 
equal  partition  was  soon  after  made  between  the 
contending  states,  which  induced  those  jealous  re- 
publics to  lay  aside  their  animosities,  and  enjoy  their 
booty  in  peace.* 

In  the  year  of  Christianity  909,  Abu  Abdallah, 
emir  or  governor  of  Sicily,  defeated  the  caliph  of 
Cairoan,  and  drove  the  family  of  the  Aglabites  from 
the  throne,  which  they  had  occupied  more  than  a 
century.  The  conqueror,  having  seized  the  western 
capital,  bestowed  the  vacant  caliphate  on  Obeidallah, 
one  of  the  posterity  of  Ali,  who  assumed  the  title  of 
Mahadi,  or  Director  of  the  Faithful,  built  a  new  city 
which  he  called  Mahadia,  and  claimed  the  distinction 
of  being  the  founder  of  the  Fa//mi7e  dynasty  in  Africa, 
where  he  soon  put  an  end  to  the  power  of  the  Edris- 
ties,  so  called  from  their  founder  Edris,  a  descendant 
of  Ali,  who  fled  from  Mecca  (A.  D.  784),  and  had 
wrested  the  countries  of  Fez  and  Tangier  from  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad.     For  five  centuries  a  succession 

*  For  the  conquests  of  the  Saracens  in  Italy  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  addition  to  the  authorities  already  cited,  the  reader 
may  consult  the  annalists  Baronius  and  Pagi ;  De  Guignes 
(Hist,  des  H>ins,  tome  i.) ;  Muratori  (Script,  rer.  Ital.) ;  Carusii 
(Bibl.  Hist.  Sicil);  Cod.  Diplom.  Arabo-Sicil.,  Malaterva,  and 
GJannone  (Istoria  Civil  di  Nap.);  Anuzi  (Hist,  de  Sardaigne) ; 
Meursins  (lib.  ii.  cap.  7,  15,  21);  Belon.  (Observations,  &c. 
chap.  3-20);  and  Tournefort  (Voyage  du  Levant,  tome  i.), 


CALIPHS    OF    EGYPT.  47 

of  fleeting  dynasties  ravaged  and  distracted  these 
western  provinces.  Various  kingdoms  Avere  formed, 
the  most  considerable  of  which  were  those  of  Mo- 
rocco, Algiers,  and  Tunis.  From  Leo  Africanus,  it 
appears  that  in  the  year  1215  a  flourishing  kingdom 
was  founded  at  Timbuctoo  by  a  Moorish  chief.  Some 
of  its  rulers  had  the  reputation  of  warlike  princes, 
who  maintained  a  splendid  court,  encouraged  com- 
merce, and  extended  their  frontiers  in  all  directions. 
Of  their  prosperity  the  Portuguese  voyagers  received 
the  most  flattering  accounts,  but  were  never  tempted 
to  ascertain  their  authenticity  by  ocular  evidence. 
Other  adventurers  were  equally  negligent ;  and  it  is 
only  at  the  present  day  that  the  successful  career  of 
African  discovery  has  made  this  mysterious  capital 
known  to  Europeans.  It  were  out  of  our  province 
to  pursue  further  the  history  of  Northern  Africa. 
Scenes  of  horror  and  bloodshed  fill  its  pages.  The 
grand  seignior,  since  tlie  time  when  Solyman  assisted 
the  two  Greek  corsairs,  Hayradin  and  Barbarossa, 
with  his  fleets  in  reducing  Tunis  and  Algiers,  has 
always  claimed  the  Barbary  States  as  fiefs  of  Con- 
stantinople ;  and  the  proud  list  of  his  titles  is  still 
swelled  by  their  names. 

Egypt  was  reduced  by  Moez,  the  last  of  the  Afri- 
can caliphs,  who  built  Grand  Cairo  (A.  D.  972),  and 
established  there  the  dynasty  of  the  Fatimites ; 
leaving  his  western  dominions  to  be  holden  in  fief 
by  one  of  his  generals.  His  g-enealogy  was  doubt- 
ful ;  but  he  had  now  an  argument  to  prove  his  legiti- 
macy, which  it  might  have  been  dangerous  to  call  in 
question,  and  which  silenced  the  indiscreet  demand 
of  one  of  the  Arabian  princes  of  the  sacred  blood, 
who  inquired  from  what  branch  of  the  family  he  drew 
his  title.  "  This,"  exclaimed  Moez,  drawing  his 
scimitar,  "  is  my  pedigree  ;  and  these,"  throwing  a 
handful  of  gold  among  his  soldiers,  "  are  my  kindred 
and  my  children."  His  general  Jauher  had  sent  a 
detachment  of  troops  towards  Syria  and  Palestine  ; 


48  CALIPHS    OF    EGYPT. 

and  with  such  gallantry  were  his  orders  executed, 
that  Ramla,  Tiberias,  and  Damascus  were  compelled 
to  swear  allegiance  to  the  conqueror  of  Egypt.   The 
name  of  Almoti  was  suppressed,  and  that  of  Moez 
substituted  in  the  mosques,  not  only  of  Egypt,  but  in 
Syria  and  Arabia,  as   far  as  the  city  of  Medina; 
Mecca  being  the  only  place  of  importance  that  per- 
sisted in  recognising  the  house  of  Abbas.     Saladin, 
whose  name  stands  associated  with  the  most  bril- 
liant achievements   of   Mohammedan  valour,  was 
first  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  vizier;   and  by  a 
series  of  artful  and   energetic  measures,  he  soon 
became  absolute  ruler  of  the  country,  and  the  founder 
of  a  new  dynasty  (A.  D.  1171).     From  the  Indian 
Ocean  to  the  Mountains  of  Armenia,  from  Tripoli  to 
the  Tigris,  his  power  was  felt  and  acknowledged. 
Even  in  Arabia,  the  greater  part  of  which  owned  his 
authority,  his  name   was    inserted    in    the  public 
prayers.     The  title  of  Ayubites,  by  which  he  and  his 
successors  are  distinguished  in  history,  was  derived 
from  the  name  of  his  father.     Under  his  descendants 
Egypt  was  repeatedly  assailed  by  the  Crusaders, 
Too    feeble    to    defend    themselves,   the    Ayubite 
princes  had  recourse  to  the  protection  of  foreigners. 
Twelve  thousand  Turks  from  the  shores  of  the  Cas- 
pian  had  been  purchased,  and  trained  to  military 
service  as  attendants  of  the  royal  person.     From 
being  slaves,  these  Mamlouks  soon  became  masters; 
and  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  from  their  first  intro 
duction  into  the  country,  they  murdered  the  last  suc- 
cessor of  Saladin,  and  placed  one  of  their  own  chiefs, 
Azzaddin,  on  the  throne  (A.  D.  1250).     The  sway  of 
the  Mamlouks  and  Borghites,  two  branches  of  the 
same  dynasty,  endured  for  two  centuries  and  a  half; 
when  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Turks  in  1517,  re 
duced  that  kingdom  to  the  condition  of  a  province. 

Spain  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  Moslem  conquests 
that  detached  itself  from  the  parent  stock.  In  the 
general  proscription  and  massacre  of  the  Ommiades 


CALIPKS    OF    SPAIN,  49 

that  ensued  on  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Abbas, 
a  royal  youth  of  the  name  of  Abdab-ahman,  a 
younger  son  of  Merwan,  escaped  the  fury  of  his 
enemies.  With  his  brother  and  his  child  he  fled, 
and  concealed  himself  in  the  woods  on  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates.  His  persecutors  discovered  his 
retreat ;  the  child  was  slain,  and  the  two  brothers 
plunged  into  the  river.  Fainting  with  fatigue,  Soly- 
man  accepted  the  proffered  mercy  of  the  pursuers, 
and  returned  to  the  shore,  where  he  was  basely  put 
to  death.  The  more  robust  Abdalrahman  swam  the 
dangerous  passage,  and  was  hunted  by  the  ruthless 
foe  from  the  deserts  of  Irak  to  the  recesses  of 
Mount  Atlas  in  Africa. 

The  Saracens  of  Spain  retained  their  attachment 
to  the  family  of  Moawiyah ;  their  zeal  was  rekindled 
by  the  presence  of  a  prince  of  that  race  in  their 
neighbourhood,  and  they  immediately  invited  the 
wandering  exile  to  ascend  the  throne  of  his  ances- 
tors. Dreading  the  implacable  vengeance  of  his 
enemies,  and  dazzled  by  the  splendours  of  a  crown, 
Abdalrahman  received  the  message  with  joy,  and 
was  saluted  with  acclamations  on  the  shore  of 
Granada.  The  cities  of  Malaga,  Ronda,  Xeres, 
and  Seville,  tendered  him  their  allegiance  ;  and  the 
descendants  of  Merwan  saw  restored  in  Spain 
(A.  D.  755)  the  honours  of  the  caliphate,  which  they 
had  lost  in  the  East,  His  elevation  was  not  gained 
without  opposition  and  bloodshed  ;  but  all  the  efforts 
of  the  Abbassides  were  in  vain.  In  a  battle  of 
several  days  near  Seville,  their  lieutenant,  Alala,  fell 
with  7000  of  his  followers ;  his  head,  in  salt  and 
camphor,  was  sent  to  Mecca,  and  suspended  before 
the  gate  of  the  palace ;  the  streets  of  that  city  and 
of  Cairoan  were  strown  with  similar  trophies  ;  and 
the  Caliph  Almansor  expressed  his  thankfulness  that 
he  was  separated  by  seas  and  lands  from  an  adver- 
sary who  appeared  to  be  not  a  man,  but  a  demon. 
After  a  successful  struggle  he  established  himself 

Vol.  II.— E 


50  CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN. 

firmly  on  the  throne  of  Cordova,  where  death  put  an 
end  to  his  projects  (A.  D.  788)  after  a  reign  of  thirty- 
three  years.  The  renown  of  this  prince  acquired 
him  the  friendship  and  esteem  of  Charlemagne,  who, 
after  having  tried  his  prowess  in  war,  courted  his 
alliance  by  offering  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
His  rival,  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  spoke  of  him  with 
admiration,  calling  him  the  Hawk  of  the  Koreish,  on 
account  of  the  ability  he  displayed  in  surn»^unting 
difficulties  in  his  flight  from  Asia  to  Europe,  and  of 
the  celerity  with  which  he  made  Ijimself  master 
of  a  kingdom,  without  the  assistance  of  friends  or 
followers. 

The  dynasty  of  the  Spanish  Ommiades  existed 
for  nearly  three  centuries.  In  wealth  and  grandeur 
some  of  their  princes  equalled,  if  not  surpassed^ 
their  gorgeous  rivals  in  the  East.  Under  Alnasar 
(A.  D.  939),  the  annual  revenue  of  Spain  from  the 
towns  and  villages  is  said  to  have  amounted  to 
5,480,000  dinars  (2,534,500/.) ;  and  from  spoils  taken 
in  war,  to  765,000  dinars  (353,812/.  lOs.),  besides  a 
fifth  of  the  soldiers'  plunder,  not  computed'  in  the 
register  of  the  treasury.  Of  this  vast  income,  one- 
third  was  appropriated  to  the  army,  one-third  to 
building,  and  the  remaining  third  to  the  royal  ex- 
chequer. Our  imagination  is  dazzled  with  this  pic- 
ture of  courtly  splendour;  yet,  if  we  consult  the 
experience  of  the  possessor,  it  will  perhaps  excite 
our  pity,  rather  than  our  envy  or  admiration.  In  a 
memorial,  written  Nvith  his  own  hand,  and  found  in 
his  closet  after  his  decease,  he  has  left  an  authentic 
estimate  of  his  felicity.  Amid  riches  and  honours, 
power  and  pleasure,  Alnasar,  "  the  heir  of  pros- 
perity," found,  in  a  reign  of  fifty  years  and  seven 
months,  only  fourteen  days  of  undisturbed  enjoy- 
ment. The  glories  of  this  period  were  even  eclipsed 
by  that  of  his  son  Hakem,  who  subdued  the  provinces 
of  Barbary,  and  annexed  to  his  other  dominions  the 
sovereignty  of  Western  Africa.     But  the  luxury,  the 


CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN.  ijl 

tyranny,  and  the  negligence  of  the  last  princes  of 
the  house,  lost  them  the  conquests  which  had  been 
won  by  the  valour  of  their  ancestors,  and  were  the 
causes  of  this  fine  kingdom  passing  into  other  hands. 
Lieutenants  and  viziers  rebelled,  and  aspired  to  inde- 
pendent rule.  The  Caliph  Hesham  was  deposed  by 
the  army,  and  with  him  was  finally  extinguished  the 
power  of  the  Spanish  Ommiades  (A.  D.  1036). 

Their  downfall  became  the  signal  for  feuds  and 
contentions ;  usurpers  divided  the  sovereignty  among 
themselves,  and  there  arose  as  many  dynasties  as 
there  were  principal  towns.  Malaga,  Algesiras, 
Cordova,  Toledo,  Seville,  Jaen,  Lisbon,  Tortosa, 
Badajos,  Saragossa,  Valencia,  Murcia,  Almeria, 
Denia,  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  had  each  its  separate 
king  and  government.  In  consequence  of  their 
mutual  jealousies,  frequent  wars,  massacres,  and 
intestine  commotions,  these  petty  monarchs  either 
fell  a  prey  to  each  other,  or  were  gradually  subdued 
by  the  ancient  possessors  of  the  country.  The 
little  province  of  Granada  alone  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence, reinforced  by  subsidies  from  Africa  and 
the  fugitive  Moslems  from  the  cities  conquered  by 
the  Christians.  For  nearly  three  centuries  it  con- 
tinued to  increase  in  population,  wealth,  and  power ; 
and  was  governed  by  the  laws  and  religion  of  Mo- 
hammed, until  it  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  arms 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  whose  fortunate  marriage 
united  the  crowns  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  and  an- 
nexed to  their  dominions  all  the  inferior  principali- 
ties of  the  kingdom.  Thousands  of  the  zealous  and 
conscientious  followers.of  the  Arabian  Prophet  were 
put  to  the  sword  or  driven  into  exile,  and  the  more 
timid  compelled  to  a  nominal  acknowledgment  of 
the  gospel.  The  surrender  of  Granada,  after  ten 
years  of  incessant  fighting,  terminated  the  dominion 
of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  which  had  endured  778  years, 
and  engaged  the  Christians  in  3700  battles.  "  This 
great  triumph  of  our  holy  Catholic  faith,"  says  the 


52  CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN. 

pious  and  minute  Fray  Agapida,  "  took  place  in  the 
beginning:  of  January  "in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1492, 
being  3655  years  from  the  population  of  Spain  by 
the  patriarch  Tubal ;  3797  from  the  general  deluge  ; 
5453  from  the  creation  of  the  world;  and  in  the 
month  Rebiah,  in  the  897th  year  of  the  Hejira,  or 
flight  of  Mohammed,  whom  God  confound  !"* 

This  detested  nation,  whose  conquest  and  expul- 
sion were  attended  with  such  atrocities,  and  such 
triumphs  to  the  Catholic  church,  Avere  by  far  the 
most  industrious  and  skilful  part  of  the  Spanish  popu- 
lation ;  and  their  loss  was  a  blow  to  the  greatness 
and  prosperity  of  that  kingdom,  from  which  it  lias 
never  recovered.     The  literary  activity  and  com- 
mercial enterprise  of  the  Arabs,  which  the  wise  policy 
of  their  caliphs  encouraged,  contributed  both  to  en- 
rich and  adorn  their  adopted  country.     Cordova,  the 
seat  of  the  Ommiades,  was  scarcely  inferior  in  point 
of  wealth  and  magnitude  to  its  proud  rival  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris.     A  space  of  twenty-four  miles 
in  length  and  six  in  breadth,  along  the  margin  of  the 
Guadalquiver,  was  occupied  with  palaces,  streets, 
gardens,  and  public  edifices  ;  and  for  ten  miles  the 
citizens  could  travel  by  the  light  of  lamps  along  an 
uninterrupted  extent  of  buildings.     In  the  reign  of 
Almansor  it  could  boast  of  270,000  houses,  80,455 
shops,  911  baths,  3877  mosques,  from  the  minarets 
of  which  a  population  of  800,000  were  daily  sum- 
moned to  prayers.     The  seraglio  of  the  caliph,— his 
wives,  concubines,  and  black  eunuchs,  amounted  to 
0300  persons ;  and  he  was  attended  to  the  field  by  a 
guard  of  12,000  horsemen,  Avhose  belts  and  scimitars 
were  studded  with  gold.     Granada  was  equally  cele- 
brated for  its  luxury  and  its  learning.     The  royal 
demesnes  extended  to  the  distance  of  twenty  miles, 
the  revenues  of  which  were  set  apart  to  maintain 
the  fortifications  of  the  city.     Of  the  duty  on  grain, 

*  Conquest  of  Granada  by  Washington  Irving. 


CALIPHS    OF    SPAiy.  63 

the  king's  exchequer  received  about  15,000Z.  yearly 
— an  immense  sum  at  that  time,  when  wheat  sold  at 
the  rate  of  sixpence  a  bushel.  The  consumption 
of  250,000  inhabitants  kept  130  water-mills  con- 
stantly at  work  in  the  suburbs.  The  population  of 
this  small  kingdom  under  tlie  Moors  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  3,000,000,  which  is  now  diminished  per- 
haps to  one-fifth  of  that  number.  Its  temples  and 
palaces  have  shared  the  same  decay.  The  Alham- 
bra  stands  solitary,  dismantled,  and  neglected.  The 
interior  remains  of  the  palace  are  in  tolerable  pres- 
ervation, and  present  a  melancholy  picture  of  the 
romantic  magnificence  of  its  former  kings.  Seville, 
which  had  continued  nearly  200  years  the  seat  of  a 
petty  kmgdom,  enjoyed  considerable  reputation  as 
a  place  of  wealth  and  commerce.  The  population 
in  1247  was  computed  at  300,000  persons,  which,  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  had  decreased  one-third.  It 
was  one  of  the  principal  marts  for  olives  in  the 
Moorish  dominions  ;  and  so  extensive  was  the  trade 
in  this  article  alone,  that  the  axarafe,  or  plantations 
round  the  subftrbs,  employed  farm-houses  and  olive- 
presses  to  the  amount  of  100,000,  being  more  than 
is  now  to  be  found  in  the  whole  province  of  An- 
dalusia. 

The  government  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain  was  a 
military  despotism — tempered,  however,  by  man- 
ners and  customs  which  made  it  preferable  to  the 
irresponsible  rule  of  Eastern  tyranny.  The  throne 
was  elective  ;  yet  the  reigning  monarch  had  seldom 
much  difficulty  in  transferring  the  sovereign  power 
to  a  favourite  son.  Though  a  military  people,  the 
Saracens  were  but  little  skilled  in  what  may  be 
called  the  tactics  of  the  profession.  Hakem  was 
the  first  of  the  caliphs  that  organized  an  army,  paid 
his  soldiers  regularly,  and  formed  magazines  of  war- 
like scores.  The  command  of  the  native  Spanish 
troops  was  usually  given  to  some  relation  of  the 
monarch,  or  other  confidential  person;  and  their 

E2 


54  CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN. 

arms  consisted  of  a  short  coat-of-mail,  a  light  hel- 
met, Arabian  horse  furniture,  a  leathern  buckler, 
and  a  slender  spear.  The  African  mercenaiies 
sometimes  used  camels  in  battle,  so  equipped  as  to 
make  the  hump  on  their  backs  appear  larger  than  its 
natural  size — a  stratagem  that  frequently  threw  the 
Christian  army  into  confusion. 

Their  arms  were  a  peculiar  kind  of  knotted  staves, 
or  rather  pikes,  termed  annas,  which  they  drove 
furiously  against  the  enemy.  The  massy  silver  of 
their  belts,  their  bridles,  and  their  swords  displayed 
the  magnificence  of  a  prosperous  nation.  Their  ac- 
coutrements were  light,  and  not  like  those  of  the 
Christians,  who  were  completely  cased  in  steel. 
Their  combats  generally  consisted  in  personal  en- 
counters rather  than  regular  engagements ;  each 
man  fighting  for  himself  until  the  strongest  or 
bravest  remained  masters  of  the  field.  Beyond 
this,  indeed,  the  military  knowledge  of  the  Span- 
iards themselves  was  not  much  advanced  ;  but  their 
infantry  was  superior  to  that  of  the  Moors,  inasmuch 
as  they  could  both  attack  and  resist  a  charge  in  a 
body — while  the  latter,  unaccustomed  to  such  a 
mode  of  assault,  was  scarcely  of  any  service.  This 
defect,  however,  was  amply  compensated  by  the 
superiority  of  the  Moorish  cavalry,  which  was  com- 
posed of  horsemen  selected  from  the  best  famihes, 
and  mounted  on  excellent  chargers,  to  the  manage- 
ment of  which  they  were  trained  from  infancy. 
Instead  of  wagons,  they  were  attended  by  a  long 
train  of  camels,  mules,  and  asses  ;  the  multitude  of 
these  animals,  whom  tliey  bedecked  with  flags  and 
ensigns,  appeared  to  swell  the  pomp  and  magnitude 
of  their  host ;  and  the  horses  of  the  enemy  were 
often  thrown  into  disorder  by  the  uncouth  figure 
and  odious  smell  of  the  camels  of  the  East.  Their 
order  of  battle  was  a  long  square  of  two  deep  and 
solid  lines,  the  first  consisting  of  archers,  the  second 
of  cavalry.     In  general  actions  they  were  accus- 


CALIPHS    OF    SPAIK.  55 

tomi'd  to  make  their  first  onset  with  wild  cries  and 
bowlings,  in  order  to  intimidate  the  foe — a  practice 
which  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  in  the  reign 
of  Almansor,  and  was  adopted  by  the  Turks.  In 
military  tactics  the  Arabs  were,  upon  the  whole, 
inferior  to  the  Christians  ;  but  their  skill  in  the  arts 
and  sciences  gave  them,  during  part  of  their  con- 
quests, an  incalculable  advantage  over  the  latter. 
With  the  composition  of  gunpowder,  and  the  differ- 
ent ways  of  applying  it  in  war,  they  were  not  un- 
acquainted ;  and  we  know  from  various  authorities 
that  they  employed  artillery.  Casiri  has  cited  two 
native  historians,  who  prove  that  it  was  both  known 
and  used  by  the  Spanish  Arabs  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  twelfth  and  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century ; 
and  he  has  given  extracts  from  two  contemporary 
Spanish  writers,  who  describe  these  destructive  en- 
gines as  being  certain  iron  tubes  or  mortars,  which 
emitted  thunder  and  fire. 

The  annual  revenue  of  the  Spanish  caliphs  was 
immense.  In  the  reign  of  Abdalrahman  III.,  the 
greatest  sovereign  that  ever  sat  on  the  Moorish 
throne,  it  was  reckoned  equivalent  to  5,500,000/.  of 
sterling  money,  which  at  that  time  probably  ex- 
ceeded the  united  income  of  all  the  Western  mon- 
archies. It  was  derived,  first,  from  a  tithe  of  all  pro- 
duce whatsoever,  which  was  paid  in  kind ;  secondlj^, 
from  a  duty  of  twelve  and  a  half  per  cent,  on  every 
commodity  imported  or  exported  ;  of  an  impost  of 
one-tenth  part  on  every  species  of  goods  transferred 
by  sale  ;  and,  lastly,  of  a  tribute  of  one-fifth  levied 
on  property  belonging  to  Jews  and  Christians.  How 
Spain  could  supply  all  this  magnificence  and  expense 
may  be  a  subject  of  wonder  or  dispute  to  pohtical 
economists.  But  the  fact  is  certain,  and  perhaps 
not  of  very  difficult  solution.  Her  population,  not- 
withstanding all  the  devastations  of  civil  war,  was 
on  the  same  grand  scale  with  her  palaces  and  her 
productions  both  natural  and  artificial.    Under  the 


56  CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN. 

Saracens  she  boasted  of  eighty  great  cities — 300 
of  the  second  and  third  order ;  besides  smaller 
towns  and  villages  innumerable.  Most  of  these 
were  planted  with  nurseries  of  art  and  industry, 
which  gave  an  unexampled  activity  to  trade  and 
manufactures.  There  was  scarcely  a  country  in 
the  civilized  world  to  which  their  traffic  did  not  ex- 
tend. Throughout  Africa,  arms  and  accoutrements, 
silks  and  woollen  cloths  of  various  colours,  were  in 
great  demand.  With  Egypt  and  the  Grecian  states 
they  bartered  their  different  exports,  to  a  still  greater 
amount,  for  such  commodities  as  were  in  popular 
request  in  Spain.  Their  drugs  and  dies  were  ex- 
changed for  oriental  perfumes  ;  and  the  luxuries  of 
India  were  brought  from  Alexandria  to  Malaga  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  court.  The  manufactories 
of  Spain  w^ere  the  arsenals  from  w^hich  France  and 
England  drew  their  best  military  accoutrements — 
such  as  helmets,  lances,  swordblades,  and  coats-of- 
mail,  which  had  reached  a  perfection  in  that  coun- 
try unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  profits  de- 
rived from  these  successful  speculations  must  have 
been  incalculable  ;  and,  while  abundantly  remuner- 
ating the  merchant,  they  afforded  a  prodigious 
source  of  revenue  to  the  sovereign. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Arabs  had  an  im- 
mense marine  ;  the  woods  and  forests  of  Spain  fur- 
nished them  with  timber,  and  they  are  said  to  have 
possessed  a  fleet  of  more  than  1000  merchant  ves- 
sels. From  an  Arabian  waiter  on  commerce,  of  the 
tenth  century,  it  appears  that  the  balance  of  trade 
was  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  Moors,  w^hom  Cdairi, 
from  their  maritime  traffic  and  the  distant  voyages 
they  undertook  by  sea,  compares  to  the  ancient 
Phenicians  and  Carthaginians.  Gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, raw  and  wrought  silks,  sugar,  cochineal,  quick- 
silver, iron,  olives,  oil,  myrrh,  corals  fished  on  the 
coast  of  Andalusia,  pearls  on  that  of  Catalonia, 
rubies  and  amethysts  from  mines  in  the  neighbour- 


CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN.  57 

hood  of  Malaga  and  Carthacrena,  were  among  the 
most  valuable  and  lucrative  articles  of  exportation. 
These  facts,  attested  by  native  authors,  v^ill  throw 
light  on  the  hitherto  unexplained  magnificence  of 
the  Western  caliphs.  Commerce  was  the  true 
foundation  of  their  greatness — the  secret  spring 
that  filled  the  treasures  of  Spain,  and  fed  the  wealth 
and  industry  of  her  inhabitants.  At  length  the  fleets 
of  the  Christians,  as  well  as  of  the  kings  of  Arragon 
and  Portugal,  gradually  defeated  the  maritime  forces 
of  the  I\Ioors,  until  they  were  totally  annihilated 
after  the  conquest  of  Algesiras,  Seville,  and  Al- 
meria. 

In  all  their  actions  by  sea  and  land,  the  Arabs  re- 
tained their  characteristic  mode  of  warfare;  they 
sustained  with  patient  firmness  the  fury  of  attack, 
and  seldom  advanced  to  the  charge  until  the  enemy 
were  thrown  off  their  guard  or  overcome  with  fa- 
tigue. But  if  they  were  broken  and  repulsed,  they 
knew  not  how  to  rally  or  renew  the  combat ;  and 
their  dismay  was  always  heightened  by  a  super- 
stitious presentiment  that  they  were  abandoned  of 
Heaven.  The  decline  and  fall  of  the  caliphs  coun- 
tenanced the  fearful  opinion  that  God  had  declared 
himself  on  the  side  of  the  foe  ;  nor  were  there  want- 
ing, both  among  Mohammedans  and  Christians,  some 
obscure  oracles  which  predicted  their  alternate  de- 
feats. In  their  various  encounters  with  the  Arabs, 
the  princes,  both  of  Asia  and  Europe,  too  often  felt 
that  these  barbarians  had  nothing  barbarous  in  their 
discipline.  If  their  ships,  engines,  and  fortifications 
were  of  a  less  skilful  construction,  they  had  the 
vanity  to  think  it  was  a  defect  of  nature  rather  than 
any  fault  of  their  own ;  for  they  readily  acknow- 
ledged that  the  same  God  who  had  given  a  tongue 
to  the  Arabians  had  more  nicely  fashioned  the  hands 
of  the  Chinese  and  the  heads  of  the  Greeks. 

Since  the  reduction  of  Sicily  by  the  Moslems,  the 
Greeks  had  been  anxious  to  regain   that  valuable 


b8  CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN. 

f 

possession.     The  southern  provinces,  which  now 
compose  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  were  in  the  ninth 
century  divided  into  the  rival  principahties  of  Bene- 
vento,  Salerno,  and  Capua,  whose  mutual  jealousies 
had  invited  the  Arabs  to  the  ruin  of  their  common 
niheritance.     Their  shores  were  visited  almost  an- 
nually by  the  squadrons  which  issued  from  the  har- 
bour of  Palermo ;  while  a  colony  of  Saracens  had 
fixed  themselves  at  Bari,  which  commands  the  en- 
trance to  the  Adriatic  Gulf.     The  depredations  of 
these  adventurers  called  down  the  vengeance  of  the 
Greeks  and  Franks,  whose  combined  strength  was 
necessary  to  root  out  this  nest  of  pirates.     The  for- 
tress was   invested  by  sea  and  land ;  and,  after  a 
defence  of  four  years,  the  Arabs  submitted  to  the 
clemency  of  Louis,  grandson  of  Charlemagne,  who 
commanded  in  person  the  operations  of  the  siege. 
But  they  still  continued  to  infest  the  country,  pil- 
laging the  monasteries  and  profaning  the  churches, 
Tn  the  work  of  devastation  they  were  joined  by  a 
new  enemy  from  the  north.     The  citizens  of  Bari 
had  invited  the  Normans  (A.  D.  1016)  to  assist  in 
shaking  off  the   Grecian  yoke.     These    ferocious 
auxiliaries  soon  established  themselves  permanently 
in  the  dukedom  of  Naples,  and  ultimately  assisted 
8uch  of  the  petty  princes  as  appealed  to  their  sword. 
In  every  enterprise  of  war  or  danger  they  promptly 
volunteered  their  aid,  and  Sicily  at  that  time  opened 
tin  inviting  scene  for  their  services.     In  their  first 
efforts  against  that  island,  the  Latin  emperors  had 
been  unsuccessful ;  20,000  of  their  best  troops  were 
lost  in  a  single  expedition,  and  the  victorious  Mos- 
lems ridiculed  the  policy  of  a  nation  which  entrusted 
eunuchs,  not  only  with  the  custody  of  their  women, 
but  with  the  command  of  their  armies. 

Internal  divisions,  however,  effected  what  the 
Byzantine  armaments  had  attempted  in  vain.  The 
emirs  aspired  to  independence ;  the  people  rebelled 
against  the  emirs,  and  the  cities  and  castles  were 


CALIPHS    OF    SPAIN.  59 

inurped  by  their  respective  chiefs.  In  these  do 
mestic  quarrels  the  weaker  of  two  rival  brothers 
implored  the  friendship  of  the  Christians  ;  and  a  band 
of  500  Norman  warriors,  knights  on  horseback, 
landed  in  Sicily  under  the  standard  of  the  Governor 
of  Lombardy.  The  valour  of  the  Arabs  quailed  be- 
fore the  ponderous  swords  of  this  new  and  untried 
foe.  In  three  successive  engagements  they  were 
defeated ;  in  the  second  their  leader  fell ;  and  in  the 
last,  60,000  of  their  troops  were  left  dead  on  the 
field.  Thirteen  cities,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
island,  after  a  possession  of  200  years,  w^ere  reduced 
to  the  obedience  of  the  Greek  emperor. 

Twenty  years  afterward,  Sicily  felt  the  prowess 
of  a  new  conqueror,  the  famous  Count  Roger,  the 
twelfth  and  youngest  son  of  Tancred,  a  Norman  ban- 
neret, who  had  joined  the  fortunes  of  his  brothers 
and  countrymen,  then  possessors  of  the  fertile  rC' 
gion  of  Apulia.  In  an  open  boat  he  crossed  the 
strait,  landed  with  only  sixty  soldiers,  drove  the 
Saracens  to  the  gates  of  Messina,  and  returned  in 
safety  with  the  spoils  of  the  adjacent  country.  Nei- 
ther difficulties  nor  dangers  could  repress  his  activ- 
ity. Before  the  walls  of  Trani,  300  Normans  with- 
stood and  repulsed  the  whole  force  of  the  island. 
At  the  battle  of  Ceramio,  50,000  horse  and  foot  were 
overthrown  by  only  136  Christian  soldiers  (most 
probably  knights,  but  so  stands  the  narrative  of  the 
historian),  without  reckoning  St.  George,  who  fought 
on  horseback  in  the  foremost  ranks. 

Notwithstanding  the  frequent  and  powerful  suc- 
cours which  the  Sicilian  Arabs  obtained  from  their 
brethren  in  Africa,  town  after  town  yielded  to  the 
bravery  of  the  Normans,  who  added  those  splendid 
conquests  in  the  Mediterranean  to  the  list  of  their 
achievements  in  England,  France,  and  other  king- 
doms of  Europe.  After  a  war  of  thirty  years,  Roger 
obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Sicily,  with  the  title  of 
Great  Count ;  that  of  king  being  afterward  bestowed 


60  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

cn  his  son.  The  Saracens  were  protected  in  th& 
enjoyment  of  their  property  and  religion  ;  but  tli© 
island  was  restored  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roniari 
pontiff,  who  planted  the  principal  cities  with  new 
bishops,  and  gratified  the  clergy  by  a  liberal  endow- 
ment of  the  churches  and  monasteries. 


CHAPTER  IIL 

LITERATURE    OP   THE    ARABS. 


The  Arabs  turn  their  Attention  to  Learning— Their  rapid  Pro- 
gress—Literary Ardour  and  Patronage  of  the  Caliphs— Haroui? 
al  Raschid—Almamoun—Vathek— College  of  Mostanser  at 
Bagdad— Academies  and  Libraries  founded  in  Persia,  Syria 
Egypt,  Africa,  and  Spain— Course  of  Study  in  the  Saracex 
Schools  —  Grammar  —  Rhetoric  —  Poetry  —  Tales  —  Arabian 
Nights'  Entertamments— Story-tellers— History— Biography— 
N  umismatics— Geography— Statistics— Metaphysics  —  Medl 
cine  and  Medical  Authors— Rhazes—Avicenna— Pharmacy-- 
Anatomy  and  Surgery— Botany— Chymistry— Astrology— As 
tronomy— Optics  —  Mathematics— Trigonometry— Algebra- 
Arithmetic— Architecture— The   Fme   Arts— Painting— Cal 
ligraphy— Music— Agriculture— Manufactures  in  Steel,  Por 
celain,  and  Leather— Claims   of  the  Arabs  as  the  Restorers 
of  Letters  and  the  Importers  of  useful  Arts  and  Inventions  in 
Europe. 

It  was  at  a  period  when  ignorance  and  barbarism 
overspread  every  part  of  the  Western  AVorld,  that 
literature  and  philosophy  found  an  asylum  in  the 
schools  of  the  Saracens.  Unlike  the  Goths  and 
Huns,  they  became  the  instructers  and  enlighteners 
of  the  countries  they  had  conquered.  Their  stern 
fanaticism  yielded  to  the 'mild  influence  of  letters; 
and,  by  a  singular  anomaly  in  the  history  of  nations, 
Europe  became  indebted  to  the  implacable  enemies 
of  her  religion  and  her  liberties  for  her  most  valu- 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  61 

able  lessons  in  science  and  the  arts.  In  the  pre- 
ceding- chapters  of  this  work  we  have  beheld  the 
disciples  of  Mohammed  in  the  character  of  warriors 
and  conquerors.  Their  success  in  arms  had  been 
enough  to  satiate  even  the  most  unmeasured  ambi- 
tion. But,  great  and  splendid  as  were  the  events 
we  have  just  detailed,  we  shall  turn  with  pleasure 
from  fields  of  blood,  from  scenes  of  misery  and  vice, 
to  contemplate  the  more  g-entle  and  useful  progress 
of  the  Arabs  in  the  cultivation  of  learning.  The 
first  Mussulmans  knew,  or  at  least  esteemed,  no 
other  book  than  the  Koran.  But  this  aversion  to 
intellectual  pursuits  gradually  relaxed,  in  proportion 
as  their  faith  and  their  empire  extended.  The  pos- 
session of  those  happy  countries,  so  long  the  seats 
of  ancient  taste  and  splendour,  naturally  introduced 
among  them  a  spirit  of  refinement ;  and  here  their 
career  was  as  rapid  and  surprising  as  it  had  been 
in  the  field.  The  literature  of  Greece,  such  as  it 
was  in  the  days  of  Pericles,  required  the  slow  growth 
of  nearly  eight  centuries  of  progressive  cultivation. 
The  same  period  elapsed  between  the  foundation 
of  Rome  and  the  age  of  Augustus.  In  France,  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  brilliant  era  of  wit  and 
genius,  was  1200  years  subsequent  to  that  of  Clovis. 
But  among  the  Saracens,  such  was  their  enthusiasm 
for  learning,  that  little  more  than  a  single  centui^ 
elapsed  from  the  period  of  their  deepest  barbarism 
to  the  universal  diffusion  of  science  over  the  vast 
extent  of  their  dominions.  It  was  in  the  year  641 
that  Omar  committed  the  Alexandrian  library  to  the 
flames,  and  in  750  the  house  of  Abbas,  the  munifi- 
cent patrons  of  letters,  mounted  the  throne. 

Under  the  first  of  the  Ommiadan  caliphs,  the 
genius  of  Greece  had  begun  to  obtain  an  influence 
over  the  Arabs.  But  it  was  not  till  the  great  and 
final  division  of  the  empire — till  Bagdad  arose,  a  fair 
and  splendid  city — that  the  golden  age  of  A  rabian 
literature  commenced  in  the  East,  and  the  Muses 

Vol.  XL— F 


62  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARAfiS. 

were  courted  from  their  hallowed  retreats  beyond 
the  Bosphorus,  to  expiate  the  giiilt  of  conquest  and 
illustrate  the  fame  of  the  Abbassides,  Almansor, 
successful  in  his  domestic  wars,  turned  his  thoughts 
to  the  acquisition  of  science.  Accident  brought  him 
acquainted  with  a  Greek  physician,  named  George, 
who  was  invited  to  court  to  prescribe  for  the  re- 
moval of  a  temporary  indigestion.  To  him  the  Sara- 
cens were  indebted  for  the  introduction  of  medicine. 
The  famous  Haroun  al  Raschid  has  acquired  a  splen- 
did name  as  the  encourager  of  letters.  He  was  fond 
of  poetry  and  music,  and  himself  considerably  skilled 
in  these  divine  arts.  Volumes  have  been  written 
on  the  learning  of  the  Moslem  empire  during  this 
cahph's  reign.  Whenever  he  undertook  a  journey, 
or  a  pilgrimage,  he  carried  with  him  a  retinue  of  a 
hundred  learned  men.  The  Arabs  were  deeply  in- 
debted to  him  for  their  rapid  progress  in  education, 
for  he  issued  a  law  that  a  school  should  be  attached 
to  every  mosque  erected  within  his  dominions. 
With  a  toleration  superior  to  the  fanaticism  of  his 
creed,  he  did  not  despise  the  knowledge  which  the 
believers  of  another  faith  possessed.  The  head  of 
his  schools,  and  the  chief  director  of  academical 
studies  in  his  empire,  was  a  Nestorian  Christian  of 
Damascus,  of  the  name  of  John  ibn  Messue.  His 
generous  example  was  imitated  by  his  successors  : 
and  in  a  short  time  the  sciences  that  were  cultivated 
in  the  capital  were  diffused  to  the  distant  extremi 
ties  of  the  caliphate. 

But  the  Augustus  of  Arabian  literature  was  Alma 
moun,  whose  attention  from  his  youth  had  been 
chiefly  engrossed  with  books  and  study.  Even  in 
his  father's  lifetime,  and  during  his  journey  to  Kho 
rasan,  of  which  he  was  appointed  governor,  he  had 
selected  for  his  companions  the  most  eminent 
scholars  among  the  Greeks,  Persians,  and  Chal- 
deans. His  accession  to  the  throne  did  not  abate  his 
ardour  for  knowledge.    Bagdad  became  the  resort 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  63 

of  poets,  philosophers,  and  mathematicians,  from 
every  country  and  of  every  creed.  His  ambassa- 
dors and  agents  in  Armenia,  Syria,  and  Egypt  were 
ordered  to  collect  the  most  important  books  that 
could  be  discovered.  The  literary  relics  of  the  con- 
quered provinces,  which  his  governors  amassed  with 
infinite  care,  were  brought  to  the  foot  of  the  throne 
.  as  the  most  precious  tribute  he  could  demand. 
Hundreds  of  camels  might  be  seen  entering  Bagdad 
loaded  with  volumes  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Per- 
sian literature  ;  and  such  of  them  as  were  thought 
to  be  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  instruction,  were 
at  the  royal  command  translated  by  the  most  skilful 
interpreters  into  the  Arabic  language,  that  all  classes 
might  read  and  understand  them.  Masters,  instruct- 
ors, translators,  and  commentators  formed  the 
court  of  Bagdad,  which  appeared  rather  to  be  a 
learned  academy  than  the  capital  of  a  luxurious  and 
warlike  government.  Aware  of  the  vast  treasures 
that  were  deposited  in  the  libraries  of  Constantino- 
ple, Almamoun,  in  concluding  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  Grecian  emperor,  Michael  HI.,  stipulated,  as 
one  of  the  conditions,  that  a  collection  of  rare  and 
valuable  authors  should  be  delivered  up  to  him. 
These  were  immediately  subjected  to  the  process 
of  translation ;  but  it  must  be  recorded  with  regret 
that,  through  an  ill-judged  partiality  for  his  native 
tongue,  he  gave  orders  that  after  the  Arabic  ver- 
sions were  finished,  the  original  manuscripts  should 
be  burned. 

The  Caliph  Vathek  not  only  admired  and  coun- 
tenanced literature  and  the  sciences,  but  was  him- 
self a  proficient  in  some  of  them,  especially  poetry 
and  music.  He  was  particularly  addicted  to  astrol- 
ogy ;  and  having  conferred  with  some  of  his  learned 
fraternity  in  his  last  illness,  they  assured  him,  on 
consulting  his  horoscope,  that  his  reign  was  yet  to 
endure  fifty  years.  His  death  in  ten  days  falsified 
this  prediction,  and  ruined  the  credit  of  Hassan  ibu 


64  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

Sohal.  Abu  Masher,  an  eminent  astrologer,  flour- 
ished in  the  reign  of  Mostain;  but  his  talents  re- 
ceived sorry  encouragement,  for  that  prince  ordered 
him  to  be  severely  whipped,  because  an  event  which 
he  had  foretold  actually  came  to  pass. 

Long  after  the  power  of  the  Abbassides  had 
dwindled  into  a  mere  pageant  of  state,  they  affected 
to  patronise  and  cultivate  learning.  Many  distin- 
guished men  in  almost  every  science  illustrated  this 
period  of  Saracen  history  ;  but  the  capital  of  the 
muses  in  the  East  had  seen  innumerable  rivals 
spring  up  in  other  parts  of  the  empire.  The  last 
prince  that  shed  a  ray  of  departing  glory  on  his  race 
was  the  Caliph  Mostanser,  who  adorned  Bagdad  by 
the  celebrated  college  that  bore  his  name.  Accord- 
ing to  oriental  historians,  this  edifice  had  no  equal 
in  the  Moslem  world,  w^hether  Ave  consider  the 
beauty  and  elegance  of  the  building,  the  number  of 
students  it  contained,  or  the  splendid  revenues  as- 
signed it  by  its  founder.  Each  of  the  four  chief  sects 
of  the  Sonnees  had  its  appointed  professor,  with  a 
monthly  salary  and  a  maintenance  from  the  royal 
exchequer.  Every  student  had  daily  a  very  hand- 
some allowance  of  provisions  of  all  kinds.  There 
were  baths  set  apart  for  their  use,  and  a  physician 
employed  to  attend  them  at  the  caliph's  expense. 

The  example  of  the  sovereign  was  sometimes  fol- 
lowed by  viziers  and  governors.  Achmed  ibn  Tolun, 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  distributed  every  month  among 
the  most  distinguished  ecclesiastics  in  that  country 
1000  dinars  of  gold  (46-2Z.  10s.) ;  and  sent  to  Bagdad 
not  less  than  2,200,000  dinars  (1,017,500/.)  for  the 
benefit  of  the  poor  and  learned  in  that  city.  An- 
other vizier  founded  a  college  there  at  the  expense 
of  200,000  (92,500/.),  and  endowed  it  with  an  annual 
revenue  of  15,000  dinars  (6937/.  10.?.).  The  benefits 
of  public  instruction  in  that  capital  were  communi- 
cated, perhaps  at  different  times,  to  6000  students 
of  every  degree,  from  the  son  of  the  noble  to  that 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS,  65 

of  the  mechanic.  The  celebrity  of  its  schools  may 
be  inferred  from  the  vast  numbers  of  poets,  histo- 
rians, physicians,  and  astronomers  which  it  pro- 
duced ;  and  for  several  ages  it  abounded  in  learned 
men,  in  the  various  departments  of  science,  more 
than  any  other  place  in  the  IMoslem  dominions. 

In  every  considerable  town,  schools,  academies, 
and  libraries  were  established.  Bussora  and  Cufa 
almost  equalled  the  capital  itself  in  reputation,  and 
in  the  number  of  celebrated  authors  and  treatises 
w^hich  they  produced.  Damascus,  Aleppo,  Balkh, 
Ipsahan,  and  Samarcand  became  renowned  as  seats 
of  science.  It  was  the  glory  of  every  city  to  col- 
lect the  treasures  of  literature  ;  and  we  are  told  that 
a  private  doctor  refused  the  invitation  of  the  sove- 
reign of  Bokhara,  because  the  carriage  of  his  books 
would  have  required  400  camels.  The  same  enthu- 
siasm was  carried  by  the  Saracens  beyond  the  fron- 
tiers of  Asia.  Egypt  became  a  second  time  the  asy- 
lum of  letters  and  art ;  and  the  Spanish  Jew,  Benja- 
min Tudela,  relates  in  his  Itinerary  that  he  found  in 
Alexandria  more  than  twenty  schools  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  philosophy.  At  a  later  period  Cairo  pos- 
sessed numerous  colleges,  some  of  which  were  so 
substantially  built  as  to  serve,  during  a  rebellion,  the 
purpose  of  a  citadel  for  the  army.  The  royal  library 
consisted  of  100,000  manuscripts,  elegantly  tran- 
scribed and  splendidly  bound,  which  were  lent  out 
to  the  students  without  jealousy  or  avarice.  In  its 
arrangement,  the  first  place  was  given  to  copies  and 
interpretations  of  the  Koran ;  the  next  to  writings 
on  the  traditions  of  Mohammed;  books  on  law  suc- 
ceeded ;  and  after  these  philology,  poetry,  and  sci- 
ence, in  their  respective  order. 

The  historians  of  Africa  dwell  with  pride  on  the 
academical  institutions  which  adorned  the  towns 
scattered  along  its  northern  coasts.  Cairoan,  La- 
race,  Fez,  and  Morocco,  were  endowed  with  magni- 
ficent establishments  for  the  instruction  of  the  peo- 

F2 


66  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

pie ;  and  their  rich  Hbraries  preserved  to  Europe 
many  valuable  works  which  nowhere  else  existed. 
It  was  in  Spain  that  Arabian  learning  shone  with  a 
brighter  lustre,  and  continued  to  flourish  to  a  later 
period,  than  in  the  schools  of  the  East.  Cordova, 
Seville,  and  Granada  rivalled  each  other  in  the 
magnificence  of  their  academies,  colleges,  and  libra- 
ries. The  former  city,  celebrated  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  poet  Lucan  and  the  two  Senecas,  possessed  a 
celebrated  university  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Its  reputation  did  not  degenerate  under  the  Sara- 
cens, and  Casiri  has  enumerated  the  names  and 
writings  of  nearly  170  eminent  men,  natives  of  this 
place.  Hakem  founded  here  a  college  and  a  royal 
library  comprising  400,000  volumes :  he  had  care- 
fully examined  every  work,  and  with  his  own  hand 
wrote  in  each  the  genealogies,  births,  and  deaths  of 
their  respective  authors.  The  academy  of  Granada 
was  long  under  the  direction  of  Shamseddin  of 
Murcia,  so  famous  among  the  Arabs  for  his  skill  in 
polite  literature.  Ibn  Almotawakkel,  who  reigned 
there  in  the  twelfth  century,  possessed  a  valuable 
library,  many  of  whose  original  manuscripts  are  still 
preserved  in  the  Escurial.  Casiri  has  given  a  cata- 
logue of  those  accounted  the  most  rare  in  the  time 
of  the  Moors ;  and  has  recorded  the  names  and 
works  of  120  authors,  theologians,  civilians,  his- 
torians, philosophers,  and  other  professors,  whose 
talents  conferred  dignity  and  fame  on  the  university 
of  Granada.  Toledo,  Malaga,  Murcia,  and  Valencia, 
were  all  furnished  with  splendid  literary  apparatus. 
In  the  cities  of  the  Andalusian  kingdom  alone, 
seventy  libraries  were  open  for  the  instruction  of 
the  public.  Middeldorpf  has  enumerated  seventeen 
distinguished  colleges  and  academies  that  flourished 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  and 
has  given  lists  of  the  eminent  professors  and  authors 
who  taught  or  studied  in  them. 
A  few  scattered  notices  are  all  that  we  possess 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  67 

respecting  the  course  of  study  and  internal  govern- 
ment of  the  Arabian  schools.  Every  institution  for 
the  education  of  youth,  strictly  speaking,  was  con- 
nected with  religion  ;  lience  public  establishments 
for  this  purpose  were  always  found  in  conjunction 
with  the  mosques.  Of  these  foundations  there  were 
two  classes  ; — one  was  composed  of  inferior  schools, 
where  children,  chiefly  of  the  lower  orders,  were 
instructed  in  the  elements  of  reading,  v/riting,  and 
religion.  From  the  Arabic  alphabet  they  gradually 
advanced  to  the  Koran,  for  the  correct  pronunciation 
of  which,  rules  were  carefully  prescribed.  A  second 
description  of  colleges  called  the  Madras^  though 
sometimes  connected  with  the  mosques  like  the 
preceding,  were  occasionally  erected  as  independ- 
ent institutions.  Here  were  taught  the  higher 
branches  of  grammar,  logic,  theology,  and  juris- 
prudence. Many  of  these  colleges  v/ere  so  consti- 
tuted as  to  contain  thirty  apartments,  each  of  which 
was  occupied  by  three  or  four  students.  The 
government  of  every  school  and  academy  was  con- 
fided to  a  rector,  chosen  from  the  most  eminent  of 
the  learned,  and  often  without  regard  to  his  religious 
opinions.  That  academical  examinations  took  place 
among  all  the  pupils  seems  highly  probable  ; — with 
respect  to  medical  students  the  fact  is  certain.  In 
Egypt  and  Spain  this  class  were  subjected  to  a  very 
strict  investigation  as  to  their  proficiency.  Casiri 
has  noticed  a  treatise  by  a  professor  of  Cordova, 
containing  seventy-seven  questions  to  be  proposed 
to  medical  candidates,  and  when  the  Achimbasi  or 
chief  physician  was  satisfied  of  their  qualifications, 
they  received  a  testimonial  or  diploma,  under  his 
hand,  authorizing  them  to  practise.  The  different 
professors  were  furnished  with  text-books,  on  which 
they  lectured,  authorized  by  the  colleges,  and  ac- 
counted classical  by  the  Arabs. 

Whatever  might  be  the  real  progress  of  the  Sara- 
cens in  the  speculative  or  the  useful  sciences,  their 


68  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

studies  embraced  a  course  sufficiently  ample  to  ex- 
ercise every  faculty  of  the  human  mind.  Grammar 
and  rhetoric  were  cultivated  with  singular  assiduity 
by  all  who  aspired  to  literary  honours  and  dis- 
tinctions. As  always  happens,  the  precepts  of 
elegant  composition  have  succeeded  the  models; — 
the  inimitable  Koran,  and  the  pure  dialect  of  the 
Koreish,  had  refined  the  Arabian  tongue  long  before 
its  rules  were  fixed  and  its  beauties  analyzed  in  the 
rival  schools  of  Cufa  and  Bussora.  The  literati  of 
Spain  were  not  inferior  to  those  of  the  East  in  the 
prosecution  of  their  philological  investigations.  We 
learn  from  Casiri  that  Abdallah  ibn  Hescham,  in  his 
"  Introduction  to  a  Chastised  Mode  of  Speaking," 
reviews  and  corrects  the  errors  of  hundreds  of 
former  grammarians. 

Eloquence,  one  of  the  three  national  distinctions 
of  the  ancient  Arabs,  had  ceased  to  be  cultivated 
after  the  time  of  Mohammed  and  his  immediate 
successors,  when  oriental  despotism  had  banished 
the  freedom  of  the  desert.  But  this  art  was  revived 
by  the  Saracens,  who  exercised  themselves  alter- 
nately in  the  compositions  of  the  academy  and  the 
pulpit.  Among  these  distinguished  orators  ]Malek 
was  considered  the  most  pathetic ;  while  Sharaif 
possessed  beyond  all  others  the  art  of  blending  the 
brilliancy  of  poetry  with  the  vigour  of  prose.  Ho- 
rairi  was  placed  in  the  same  rank  with  Cicero  and 
Demosthenes ;  and  his  academical  orations,  we  are 
assured,  deserved  to  be  written,  not  on  paper  or 
vellum,  but  on  silk  and  gold.  In  the  sixth  century, 
Granada  could  boast  of  Bedreddin,  surnamed  the 
Torch  of  Eloquence ;  while  Sekaki,  the  most  cele- 
brated wTiter  on  the  belles-lettres,  produced  a  work 
on  rhetoric  called  the  Key  of  the  Sciences,  which 
obtained  him  the  title  of  the  Arabian  Quinctilian. 

Poetry,  anciently  a  favourite  occupation  of  the 
Arabs,  continued,  after  the  restoration  of  learning, 
to  be  cultivated  with  enthusiasm  ;  and  such  was  tho 


LITERATURE  OF  THE    ARABS.  69 

fertility  of  their  genius,  that  they  are  said  to  have 
produced  more  works  in  this  department  than  all 
other  nations  united.  Owing  to  the  distractions  of 
the  caliphate,  the  Arabian  muses  seem  to  have  be-en 
silent  till  the  reign  of  the  Abbassides.  It  was  in 
the  courts  of  Haroun  and  Almamoim,  and  more 
especially  under  ^he  Ommiades  of  Sp^in,  that  poetry 
arrived  at  its  highest  pitch  of  splendour.  At  this 
era  flourished  that  bright  assemblage  of  bards, 
chivalrous  lovers,  and  romantic  princesses,  whom 
the  oriental  writers  compare  to  Anacreon,  Pindar, 
and  Sappho.  Among  their  most  eminent  improvers 
of  versification  were  Motanabbi  of  Cufa,  styled  the 
Prince  of  Poets,  and  Khalil  ibn  Ahmed,  who  first 
subjected  it  to  regular  rules. 

Several  of  the  latter  caliphs  of  Bagdad  cultivated 
this  elegant  art  with  the  greatest  ardour ;  as  did  the 
sultans  of  Mosul,  Aleppo,  Seville,  and  Cordova. 
Even  ladies  entered  the  lists  as  votaries  of  the  muse. 
Valadata,  daughter  of  the  Caliph  of  Cordova,  en- 
dowed with  equal  beauty  and  genius,  was  considered 
as  the  Arabian  Sappho.  Aysha,  another  princess  at 
the  same  court,  was  scarcely  less  distinguished ; 
her  orations  and  poems  were  frequently  read  in  the 
royal  academy  of  that  city  with  the  greatest  ap- 
plause. Labana,  also  a  native  of  that  learned  capi- 
tal, not  only  excelled  as  a  poetess,  but  was  deeply 
skilled  in  philosophy  and  arithmetic,  and  held  an 
office  not  often  enjoyed  by  females,  that  of  private 
secretary  to  the  Caliph  Hakem.  Seville  could  boast 
of  Safia,  whose  poetry  and  beautiful  penmanship 
were  the  subject  of  equal  admiration;  of  Algasania, 
who  wrote  verses  in  praise  of  the  caliphs ;  and  of 
Maria,  who  has  been  honoured  with  the  title  of  the 
Arabian  Corinna.  So  great  was  the  number  of  poets, 
that  Abul  Abbas,  son  of  the  Caliph  IMotassem,  wrote 
an  abridgment  of  Iheir  lives,  which  contains  notices 
of  130.  Casiri  has  further  recorded  the  fragment  of 
a  work  entitled  the  "  Theatre  of  the  Poets,"  which 


70  LICERAHURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

originally  consisted  of  twenty-four  volumes.  Hejiaz 
composed  a  biography  of  the  Arabian  bards  in  fifty 
volumes ;  and  Safadi  another  in  thirty,  besides  the 
lives  of  illustrious  men  distinguished  for  extraordin- 
ary valour.  In  the  large  Miscellany  of  Thaalebi, 
called  Yatima,  may  be  seen  a  specimen  of  the  united 
beauty,  elegance,  and  dignity  of  the  Arabian  muse. 
It  contains  the  lives  and  some  of  the  verses  of  the 
finest  writers  who  flourished  in  Syria,  Egypt,  Meso- 
potamia, Chaldea,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Tartary. 
Numerous  collections  of  poems  exist  in  Spain, 
termed  Dwans  or  Academical  Prolusions,  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  having  been  honoured  with  a 
recital  in  the  colleges  or  academies.  These  com- 
prise idyls,  elegies,  epigrams,  odes,  satires,  and 
almost  every  other  species  of  poetry  familiar  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans. 

The  structure  of  the  rhymes  and  verses,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  Commentaries  of  Sir  William  Jones, 
was  subjected  to  particular  laws,  which  imparted  a 
degi'ee  of  harmony  and  regularity  to  the  whole  com- 
position. The  two  forms  of  versification  most  in  use 
were  the  Gazdla  and  the  Cassida ;  both  of  which 
were  compositions  in  distichs,  the  alternate  lines  in 
every  couplet  being  made  to  rhyme  with  each  othei 
throughout  the  whole  poem.  The  Gazella  was  an 
amatory  or  lyrical  ode,  which  ought  not  to  contain 
less  than  seven,  nor  more  than  thirteen  couplets ; 
while  the  length  of  the  Cassida,  employed  in  songs 
of  love  or  war,  might  extend  from  ten  to  a  hundred 
distichs.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  Divans  were 
those  of  Abu  Nowas,  and  Ibn  Mokannas  whose  epi- 
grammatic wit  procured  him  the  title  of  the  Arabian 
Martial.*     Of  all  the  different  kinds  of  poetical  com- 

*  The  Arabs  were  extremely  fond  of  reiterations  and  jingling 
Bounds  in  the  poetry, — 

"  When  shall  it  be,  and  when  shall  it  be,  and  when  shall  it  be, 

and  when, 
That  I  shall  be,  and  love  shall  be.  and  music  shall  be,  and  wine  ?" 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  71 

position,  the  moral  and  didactic  appear  to  have  been 
in  the  highest  repute  with  the  Saracens  ;  hence  they 
wrote  in  verse,  with  as  much  facihty  as  in  prose, 
treatises  on  grammar,  rhetoric,  theology,  medicine, 
and  even  on  the  abstruse  sciences  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy. 

Amid  this  luxuriant  variety,  it  has  been  remarked 
as  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  Arabs  have  not  a 
single  poem  which  is  strictly  epic.  The  nearest 
approach  to  dramatic  writing  are  a  few  dialogues 
in  rhyme ;  but  these  belong  rather  to  satire  than 
comedy.  The  classic  models  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  works  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  of 
Terence  and  Seneca,  were  desp''=5ed  by  the  Arabs  as 
timid,  cold,  and  constrained ;  and  among  all  the 
books  which,  with  an  almost  superstitious  venera- 
tion, they  borrowed  from  these  nations,  there  is 
scarcely  a  single  poem.  Neither  Homer  nor  Pindar, 
Virgil  nor  Horace,  were  allowed  to  enter  into  a  com- 
parison with  their  own  writers  ;  and  consequently 
none  of  those  relics  of  classical  genius  were  judged 
worthy  of  translation.  A  Syriac  version  of  the  bard 
of  Troy  was  made  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Haroun 
al  Raschid  by  Theophilus,  a  Christian  Maronite  of 
Mount  Libanus ;  but  much  as  the  oriental  muse  de- 
lighted in  the  themes  of  love  and  wine,  she  was  an 
entire  stranger  to  the  effusions  of  Ovid  and  the  lyrics 
of  Sappho  and  Anacreon.  The  heroes  of  Plutarch, 
and  Livy,   and  Tacitus,  were  left  to   slumber  in 

Of  their  epigrammatic  wit,  Professor  Carlyle  (Specim.  of  Arab. 
Poetry)  has  translated  some  examples.  The  following  stanzas 
are  by  Ibn  Alrumi,  who  lived  and  clied  at  Emesa,  in  the  reign  of 
Motaded,  and  who  excelled  in  every  species  of  versification : — 

TO    A  VALETUDINARIAN. 

"  So  careful  is  Isa,  and  anxious  to  last, 
So  afraid  of  himself  he  is  grown, 
He  swears  through  two  nostrils  the  breath  goes  too  fast. 
And  he's  trying  to  breathe  through  but  one." 


72  LITERATURE    OF       HE    ARABS. 

oblivion;   and  the  eloquence  of  Koss  and  Horairi 
superseded  that  of  Cicero  and  Demosthenes. 

Fully  to  appreciate  the  beauties  of  Arabian  poe- 
try would  require  an  acquaintance  with  the  produc- 
tions  of  the  country,  and  with  the   manners   and 
peculiarities  of  the  inhabitants.     For  want  of  this 
knowledge  the  oriental  muses  have  been  criticised 
with  extreme  severity  and  injustice.     Nor  is  it  per- 
haps very  surprising  that  those  who  have  read  the 
most  celebrated  compositions  of  the  Eastern  poets, 
in  Latin  or  French  translations  only,  should  feel  but 
an  indifferent  relish  for  their  charms,  or  form  a  cold 
judgment  of  their  merits.     Comparisons  and  similes 
founded  on  local  objects  have  a  point  and  beauty  that 
can  only  be  felt  in  the  land  that  gave  them  birth ; 
though  we  may  easily  comprehend  what  force  and 
propriety  such  metaphors  as  the  odour  of  reputation 
and  the  dews  of  liberality  must  have  had  in  the  mouths 
of  those  who  so  much  needed  refreshment  on  their 
journeys,  and  were  accustomed  to  regale  their  senses 
with  the  sweetest  fragrance  in  the  world.    The  same 
remark  is  true  of  the  figures  and  images  drawn  from 
those  beautiful  and  agreeable  scenes  with  which  the 
Eastern  nations  are  perpetually  conversant.     The 
Hebrew  muse  delighted  in  the  roses  of  Sharon,  the 
verdure  of  Carmel,  and  the  cedars  of  Lebanon ;  so 
did  the  Arabs  adorn  their  verses  with  the  pearls  of 
Oman,   the   musk   of    Hadramaut,   the  woods   and 
nightingales  of  Aden,  and  the  spicy  odours  of  Ye- 
men.    Compared  to  our  idiom,  such  emblems  may 
appear  fantastic  and  extravagant,  however  striking 
and  just  in  the  glowing  language  of  the  East.    They 
differ  essentially  from  those  we  meet  with  in  the 
schools  of  Greece  and  Rome.     The  acacia  and  the 
tamarisk  of  the  rocks  bloomed  not  in  their  famed 
Parnassus,  nor  in  the  groves  of  their  academy  ;  and 
were  we  to  attempt  to  transplant  these  exotic  flow- 
ers to  the  gardens  of  Europe,  perhaps  we  should 


ITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  73 

not  be  surprised  to  find  a  portion  of  their  beauty 
gone,  and  our  gratification  diminished. 

"With  the  Arabs  the  want  of  epic  and  dramatic 
poetry  was  abundantly  compensated  by  a  species  of 
composition  which  in  some  degree  combined  the 
nature  of  both.  It  is  to  their  brilliant  imagination 
that  we  owe  those  beautiful  tales,  which  surprise  us 
not  more  by  their  prodigious  number  than  their  ex- 
haustless  variety.  With  the  Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
tainments, the  AUf  Lila  wa  Lilin,  or  the  Thousand- 
and-One  Stories  told  by  the  Sultaness  of  the  Indies, 
who  is  not  acquainted  T  The  pleasure  we  derive 
from  their  perusal  makes  us  regret  that  we  possess 
only  a  comparatively  small  part  of  these  truly  en- 
chanting fictions.  The  author  or  authors  of  this 
immense  collection  of  tales  are  unknown,  and  the 
learned  in  Europe  differ  as  to  their  origin.  Von 
Hammer,  on  the  authority  of  Masoudi,  suggested 
some  years  ago  that  they  were  not  originally  Ara- 
bian, but  translated  from  the  Indian  or  Persian  in 
the  reign  of  the  Caliph  Almamoun, — an  opinion  cer- 
tainly opposed  by  the  circumstance,  that  a  foreigner 
could  scarcely  have  succeeded  in  giving  so  accurate 
a  description  of  Arabian  life  and  scenery.  Mons. 
Galland,  who  first  supplied  a  French  version  (A.  D. 
1706),  supposed  that  not  more  than  a  six-and-thir- 
tieth  part  of  them  were  known  in  Europe  ;  and  a 
late  traveller  (Dr.  Daniel  Clarke)  has  given  a  list  of 
172  tales  contained  in  a  manuscript  purchased  by 
him  in  Egypt,  divided  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
celebrated  Nights'  Entertainments.  It  rarely  hap- 
pens, this  author  remarks,  that  any  two  copies  of 
the  Alif  Lila  wa  Lilin  resemble  each  other  ;  and  the 
title  is  indiscriminately  bestowed  on  every  compila- 
tion of  popular  stories  that  embraces  the  same  num- 
ber of  parts, — a  fact  which  may  help  to  account  for 
our  comparative  deficiency  in  this  department  of 
oriental  literature. 

Besides  those  committed  to  writing,  a  vast  num- 

VoL.  II.— G 


74  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

ber  of  these  diverting-  legends  had  no  more  durable 
tablet  than  the  memory  of  itinerating  story-tellers. 
Crowds  of  both  sexes  in  every  region  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan world  still  earn  their  livelihood  by  their 
wonderful  talent  for  recital ;  and  they  never  fail  to 
attract  an  audience  ;  for  the  indolent  natives  of  Tur- 
key, Persia,  and  India  willingly  bury  their  present 
cares  in  the  pleasing  dreams  of  the  imagination. 
The  Africans,  in  the  midst  of  their  deserts,  assem- 
ble nightly  round  the  blazing  fire  in  their  tents,  and 
learn  to  forget  their  own  hardships  and  fatigues  in 
the  captivating  narrative  of  ideal  adventures.  The 
public  squares  of  the  cities  in  the  Levant  abound 
with  these  wandering  reciters,  and  their  assistance 
is  called  in  to  fill  up  the  heavy  hours  of  the  palace 
and  the  seraglio.  Their  art  is  even  prescribed  as  a 
substitute  for  medicine ;  and  physicians  not  unfre- 
quently  recommend  them  to  their  patients  in  order 
to  sooth  pain,  to  calm  the  agitated  spirits,  or  pro- 
duce sleep  after  long  watchfulness. 

Of  their  astonishing  powers  of  memory  we  find 
an  instance  recorded  in  Hamad  of  Damascus,  known 
by  the  title  oi  Arawiyah,  or  the  Narrator,  one  of  the 
literary  suite  of  the  second  Walid,  and  reckoned  the 
most  conversant  of  men  in  the  history,  poetry, 
genealogy,  and  language  of  the  Arabs.  "  Com- 
mander of  the  Faithful,"'  he  replied  to  the  caliph, 
"  I  can  relate  the  works  of  every  poet  with  which 
you  are  acquainted,  or  have  heard  of;  I  can,  more- 
over, relate  the  works  of  those  wdth  whom  you  are 
not  acquainted ;  and  no  one  can  repeat  to  me  a 
poem,  ancient  or  modern,  but  I  can  tell  to  which  of 
the  two  classes  it  belongs.  I  will  undertake  to  repeat 
to  you,  for  every  letter  of  the  alphabet,  100  poems 
of  the  larger  description,  besides  small  pieces,  all 
made  before  the  introduction  of  Mohammedanism, 
independently  of  the  poetry  that  has  appeared  since 
that  era."  In  proof  that  this  was  no  idle  boast, 
Hamad  continued  to  relate    till  the  caliph  grew 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  75 

tired,  and  appointed  another  to  hear  him  ;  and  when 
informed  that  the  narrator  had  actually  repeated 
2900  odes  from  authors  before  the  time  of  Moham- 
med, he  ordered  him  a  present  of  100,000  drachms 
(2291/.  135.  id).  An  equal  sum  was  paid  him  by  the 
Emir  Yussuf,  governor  of  Irak,  who  was  exceed- 
ingly puzzled  on  account  of  a  stanza  which  had 
occurred  to  his  mind,  and  of  which  he  did  not  know 
the  author.  Hamad  not  only  told  him  the  name 
of  the  poet,  but  repeated  the  entire  composition 
from  which  the  verse  was  taken. 

History,  so  much  neglected  by  the  ancient  Arabs, 
was  cultivated   with  great   assiduity  by  the   Mos- 
lems ;  and  there  is  extant  an  immense  number  of 
works  in  this  department,  comprising  annals,  chron- 
icles, and  memoirs  ;  besides  descriptions  of  particu- 
lar kingdoms,  provinces,  and  towns.     A  catalogue 
of  the  authors'  names  would  fill  a  volume ;  and  we 
can  only  notice  a  few  of  the  more  celebrated.     The 
works  of  Abulfarage,  a  Christian  physician  of  Ma- 
latia,  in  Lesser  Armenia,  who  flourished  in  the  thir-- 
teenth  century,  and  of  Abulfeda,  a  writer  of  high 
repute  both  in  the  East   and  the  West,  we  have 
already  noticed.     Ibn  Katib,  another  eminent  histo- 
rian of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  descended  of  a 
noble  family,  and  vizier  to  Mohammed,  caliph  of 
Granada.     He  was  deeply  versed  in  every  branch 
of  science,  but  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  extent  and 
accuracy  of  his  historical  knowledge.     He  wrote 
treatises  on  forty-one  different  subjects,  some  of  ■ 
them   consisting  of  many  volumes  ;   and  there  is 
scarcely  a  topic  in  elegant  or  scientific  literature 
that  he  left  untouched.     His   Chronology  of  the 
Caliphs  and  Kings  of  Spain  and  Africa  has  the  lofty 
appellation  of  the  "  Silken  Vest  embroidered  with 
the  Needle."    A  treatise  on  the  Choice  of  Sentences 
he  designates  "Pure  Gold."     His  Lives  of  Eminent 
Spanish  Arabs,   celebrated  for  their  learning  and 
piety,  are  perhaps  not   inaptly  termed   "Fragrant 


76  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

Plants ;"  but  it  might  puzzle  a  modern  reader  to 
discover  that  "Approved  Butter'  means  a  disserta- 
tion on  Constancy  of  Mind ;  or  to  find  a  History  of 
Granada  in  a  "  Specimen  of  the  Full  Moon."  Ibn 
Hassem,  a  native  of  Cordova,  was  equally  renowned 
for  poetic  g-enius,  historical  information,  and  attain- 
ments as  a  linguist.  His  writings  on  various  sub- 
jects, both  in  prose  and  verse,  were  so  multitudinous, 
that,  after  his  decease,  his  son  is  said  to  have  col- 
lected 400  volumes  of  them,  comprising  about  80,000 
leaves.  Ibn  Haion,  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  city, 
wrote  an  account  of  Spain  in  ten  volumes  ;  and  ano- 
ther work  on  history,  embracing  the  occurrences  of 
his  own  times,  which  extends  to  sixty.  It  were 
tedious  to  specify  the  "  Golden  Chains  of  Faith,"  a 
highly-celebrated  performance  on  the  Character  and 
Productions  of  Royal  and  Eminent  Spanish  Authors 
in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Hejira ;  or  the  "  Mines  of 
Silver,"  a  biographical  work  of  the  famed  Ibn  Ab- 
bar ;  or  the  "  Fallen  Pearls  and  Picked-up  Flowers" 
of  Abu  Bakri.  Every  state,  every  province,  every 
city  and  town,  possessed  its  individual  chronicler 
and  historian.  A  full  history  of  Spain,  from  the 
time  when  it  was  first  peopled  to  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  giving  an  account  of  its  geogra- 
phy, productions,  and  literary  institutions,  was  con- 
tinued by  six  authors  in  succession,  and  cost  the 
labour  of  115  years. 

Works  on  biography,  memoirs  of  the  diflferent 
caliphs,  and  of  men  peculiarly  distinguished  for  their 
virtues,  talents,  or  achievements,  were  innumerable. 
The  two  Razis  of  Cordova,  father  and  son,  filled 
many  large  volumes  with  illustrious  genealogies, 
and  annals  of  distinguished  viziers.  Abul  Walid,  a 
statesman  and  historian  of  Seville,  wrote  an  account 
of  the  Ommiades  in  Spain,  similar  to  that  given  by 
Masoudi  of  tlie  Caliphs  of  Asia.  These  Arabian 
Plutarchs  descended  even  to  the  brute  creation. 
Such  was  the  passion  for  every  species  of  composi- 


LITERATURE    OF   THE    ARABS.  77 

tion,  and  the  desire  to  leave  no  subject  untouclied, 
that  Ibn  Zaid  of  Cordova,  and  Abul  Mondar  of 
Valencia,  wrote  a  Genealogical  History  of  celebrated 
Horses ;  as  did  Alasueco  and  Abdolmalec  that  of 
Camels  which  had  risen  to  distinction.  This  last- 
mentioned  author  and  eminent  antiquary  rendered 
to  his  countrymen  the  same  literary  service  that 
Bayle  and  Moreri  conferred  on  Europeans,  by  giv- 
ing them  a  copious  historical  dictionary.  The  Arabs 
possessed  encyclopaedias,  gazetteers,  and  other  simi- 
lar compilations  on  critical  and  biographical  sub- 
jects. They  were  familiar,  in  short,  with  all  those 
inventions  which  curtail  labour,  dispense  with  the 
necessity  of  research,  and  afford  facilities  to  indo- 
lence or  curiosity.  The  Dictionary  of  the  Sciences, 
by  Mohammed  Abu  Abdallah  of  Granada,  was  an 
elaborate  work,  consisting  of  eleven  parts,  of  which 
a  fragment  of  the  seventh  and  the  four  last  are  still 
extant.  A  similar  compilation  was  made  by  the 
renowned  Farabi,  who  spoke  seventy-two  languages, 
and  wrote  on  every  science  then  known. 

With  numismatics  the  Saracens  were  well  ac- 
quainted. Namari  and  Makrizi  wrote  histories  of 
Arabian  money ;  the  latter  also  produced  a  treatise 
on  the  legal  weights  and  measures.  Azaker  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  first  inventors  of  the  arts ;  and 
Gazali,  in  his  learned  work  on  Arabian  antiquities, 
treated  in  a  profound  manner  of  the  studies  and  dis- 
coveries of  his  countrymen. 

Of  geography  they  had,  so  far  as  their  limited 
means  went,  a  tolerably  accurate  knowledge.  The 
library  at  Cairo  could  boast  of  two  massive  globes, 
one  of  which  was  of  brass,  the  other  of  pure  silver, 
constructed  by  an  Arabian  cosmogi-apher,  which 
weighed  3000  drachms,  and  is  said  to  have  cost  as 
many  thousand  crowns  of  gold.  In  this  department 
Abulfeda  holds  a  conspicuous  rank.  The  Sheriff 
Edrisi  of  Cordova,  who  made  the  celebrated  silver 
globe  for  Roger  H.,  king  of  Sicily,  is  justly  distin- 

G2 


f§  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

guishedforhis  "  Geographical  Amusements,"  which 
he  wrote  and  dedicated  to  that  monarch.  Of  this, 
however,  only  an  abridgment  has  appeared  in  print, 
published  by  the  Maronites  under  the  absurd  title 
of  "  Geographia  Nubiensis."  The  Saracens  of  Spain 
were  at  great  pains  to  cultivate  this  science  by  actual 
surveys ;  and  Casiri  has  described  not  less  than 
eighteen  Voyages  or  Itineraries  of  learned  men,  who 
travelled  for  the  express  purpose  of  acquiring  and 
diffusi'ng  a  knowledge  of  geography.  Ibn  Raschid, 
one  of  them,  journeyed  through  Africa,  Egypt,  and 
Syria,  hearing  and  conversing  with  the  most  emi- 
nent scholars  in  those  countries ;  of  whom,  as  well 
as  of  their  most  remarkable  libraries  and  academies, 
he  has  given  some  account  in  his  travels. 

Statistics  and  political  economy,  though  of  slow 
growth  among  the  Arabs,  did  not  escape  their  atten 
tion.  The  ambition  of  conquest  was  succeeded  by 
a  spirit  of  inquiry  into  the  wealth  and  resources  of 
the  countries  that  had  yielded  to  their  arms.  So 
early  as  the  reign  of  Omar  II.,  Assam  ibn  Malec 
his  viceroy  in  Spain,  transplanted  into  that  country 
much  of  the  wisdom  of  the  East  as  respects  the 
improvements  of  productive  industry.  In  the  sta- 
tistical survey  which  he  composed  for  the  caliph's 
information,  he  described  not  only  the  different  prov- 
inces and  cities,  together  with  their  respective  rivers, 
ports,  and  harbours,  but  also  the  nature  of  the  cli- 
.mate  and  different  soils  of  Spain,  its  mountains, 
.plants,  and  minerals  ;  giving  an  exact  account  of  its 
imports,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  its  various  pro- 
ductions, natural  or  artificial,  might  be  manufactured 
and  applied  to  the  best  advantage. 

In  the  speculative  sciences  the  Arabs  excelled  a? 
much  as  they  did  in  polite  literature.  Their  acute 
temperament  of  mind  was  well  adapted  to  the  study 
of  philosophy  and  metaphysics,  and  on  these  ac 
quirements  is  founded  the  reputation  of  many  inge 
nious  and  celebrated  men,  whose  names  are  still 
revered  in  Europe.    Gazali  applied  the  doctrines  of 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  79 

metaphysics  to  theology ;  and  Alkendi,  a  native  of 
Bussora,  who  flourished  in  the  caliphate  of  Alma- 
moun,  was  so  celebrated  among  his  contemporaries, 
that  he  was  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  Arabian 
Philosopher,  the  Great  Astrologer,  the  Phcenix  of 
his  age.  Notwithstanding  the  extravagant  enco- 
miums of  his  friends,  he  was  unquestionably  en- 
dowed with  rare  talents ;  the  200  different  works 
which  he  composed  show  him  to  have  been  deeply 
versed  in  all  the  learning  of  the  Greeks,  Persians, 
and  Indians. 

But,  however  enthusiastically  the  Arabs  pursued 
these  ingenious  studies,  their  progress  was  more  spe- 
cious than  real.  Their  ardour  was  ill-regulated,  pre- 
ferring the  subtleties  to  the  more  important  and 
practical  lessons  of  the  science.  The  system  of 
Aristotle  was  well  fitted  to  this  prevailing  taste  of 
the  Saracens.  Though  they  were  neither  unac- 
quainted with  Plato,  nor  insensible  to  the  merits  of 
his  works,  the  Stag}Tite  became  their  exclusive 
favourite,  and  received  from  them  an  intellectual 
homage  that  was  almost  divine.  All  parties  ac- 
knowledged his  authority  and  appealed  to  his  assist- 
ance, whether  in  attack  or  defence ;  and  the  most 
solid  arguments  both  of  Jews  and  Christians  against 
the  truth  of  the  Koran  were  laid  prostrate  before 
the  resistless  artillery  of  his  syllogisms.  An  accu- 
rate translation,  or  a  learned  commentary  on  his 
works,  appeared  to  them  the  highest  pitch  of  ex- 
cellence to  which  the  genius  of  man  could  attain. 
At  the  head  of  all  these  subtle  expounders  stood 
Averroes,  who,  in  the  felicitous  obscurity  of  his 
opinions,  was  by  some  reckoned  superior  to  his 
master.  The  library  of  the  Escurial  comprises 
many  authors  on  ascetic  and  mystic  divinity ;  but 
for  a  detail  of  their  lives  and  writings  the  curious 
reader  is  referred  to  the  elaborate  pages  of  D'Her- 
belot  and  Casiri.* 

*  For  the  state  of  literature  among  the  Arabs  the  authorities 
are  numerous  : — Middeldorpf  (De  Instit.  Lit.  Arab,  in  Hisp.), 


80  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

The  natural  sciences  were  cultivated  by  the  Arabs 
not  only  with  great  ardour  and  success,  but  with 
judicious  views  of  the  means  whereby  their  progress 
might  be  promoted.  The  knowledge  which  they 
possessed  of  medicine  is  a  subject  of  curious  inquiry. 
In  a  country  where  the  climate  is  healthful  and  the 
inhabitants  abstemious,  the  healing  art  was  not  likely 
to  be  highly  esteemed  ;  and  accordingly  we  find  the 
starving  physicians  of  Arabia  complaining  that  exer- 
cise and  temperance  deprived  them  of  the  greatest 
part  of  their  practice.  About  the  time  of  Moham- 
med the  profession  appears  to  have  been  held  in 
better  repute.  His  contemporary,  Hareth  ibn  Kal- 
dah,  an  eminent  practitioner,  who  had  settled  at 
Mecca,  was  occasionally  honoured  with  his  conver- 
sation and  applause.  This  learned  personage  was 
physician  to  Abu  Beker,  and  a  pupil  of  the  Greek 

Abulfarage  (Dynast,  a  Pococke),  Asseman  (Bibl.  Orient.),  Ca- 
siri  (Bibl.  Arab.  Hisp.),  Toderini  (Litter,  des  Turcs),  Anciies 
(Deir  Orig.  Prog,  e  Stat.  d'Ogni  Litterat.),  Schnurrer  (Bibl. 
Arab.),  Renaudot  (Hist.  Pat  Alex.),  Fabricius  (Bibl.  Graec). 
Each  department  of  learning  has  been  treated  by  particular  wri- 
ters : — Philosophy, — Brucker  (Hist.  Grit.  Philos.),  Leo  Africanus 
(De  Virib.  Illust.  Arab.).  Poetry, — Sir  W.  Jones  (Comment  de 
Poes.  Asiat.),  Carlyle  (Specim.  of  Arabian  Poetry),  Sismondi 
(Litt.  du  Midi.).  Medicine, — Le  Clerc  (Hist,  de  la  Med.).  Freind 
(Hist,  of  Med.),  Sprengel  (Hist.de  la  Med.),  Moir  (Ancient  Hist. 
of  Med.).  Botany, — Haller  (Bibl.  Botanlca,  tome  i.).  Chymis- 
try, — Beckmann  (Hist,  of  Inventions),  Watson  (Chemic.  Es- 
says), Boerhaave  (Chymistry).  Mathematics, — Montucla  (Hist. 
deMathemat.),  Encyclopasd.  Britannica(Playfair's  Supplement). 
Astronomy, — Lalande  (Astronom.  tome  i.),  Bailly  (Hist,  de  I'As- 
tronornie),  Halley  (Philosoph.  Transact,  vol.  xvii.),  La  Place 
(Sysl^me  du  Monde).  Architecture, — Murphy  (Arabian  Antiqui- 
ties of  Spain),  Sw^inburne  (Travels  in  Spain),  Professor  Shak- 
spear  and  Hartwell  Plorne  (Hist,  of  the  Mohammedan  Emp. 
in  Spain.)  Agricultiire, — Jacob  (Travels  in  Spain),  Tovvnshend 
(ditto),  La  Borde  (Voyage,  Pittoresque  et  Historique,  de  I'Es- 
pagne),  Masdeu  (Hist.  Grit.  d'Esp.),  Gregorius  (Rerum  Ara- 
bic.  quae  ad  Hist.  Siculam  spectant  Gollectio).  The  most  valu- 
able collection  of  Arabic  literature  is  that  of  Casiri,  who  has 
preserved  and  classed  1851  manuscripts ;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  work  was  not  executed,  until  a  fire,  in  the  year  1671, 
had  consumed  the  greater  part  of  the  Escurial  library. 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  81 

school  of  Jondisabour  in  Persia,  founded  by  Shapoor 
I.  who,  according  to  Abulfarage,  married  a  daughter 
of  the  Emperor  Aurehan,  and  by  her  means  intro- 
duced the  doctrines  of  Hippocrates  into  the  East. 

When  conquest  had  supphed  the  Arabs  with  the 
means  of  kixury  and  intemperance,  this  science  was 
better  appreciated.  In  the  schools  of  Bagdad  and 
Alexandria,  the  study  of  physic  was  encouraged 
with  the  usual  munificence  of  the  caliphs.  Trans- 
lations of  Hippocrates  and  Galen  issued  from  the 
same  manufactory  that  had  clothed  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle in  an  oriental  dress.  Most  of  these  versions, 
the  merit  of  which  is  freely  discussed  by  Renaudot, 
and  piously  defended  by  Casiri,  are  ascribed  to  Ho- 
nain^  an  eminent  physician  of  the  Nestorian  sect, 
who  died  A.  D.  576 ;  and  Messue,  the  celebrated 
preceptor  of  Almamoun,  who  was  principal  or  su- 
perintendent of  the  College  of  Bagdad.  Serapion, 
Alkhendi,  Thibet  ibn  Korra,  the  friend  and  astrolo- 
ger of  the  Caliph  ^Motaded,  Baktishua  and  his  son 
Gabriel,  with  a  host  of  others,  are  names  which  adorn 
the  medical  annals  of  the  Saracens.  The  lives  of 
more  than  300  Mohammedan  physicians,  consist- 
ing of  Arabs,  Syrians,  Persians,  and  Egyptians, 
were  recorded  by  an  author  named  Osaiba,  part  of 
whose  work,  about  a  century  ago,  Mr.  Mead,  at  his 
own  expense,  caused  to  be  translated  from  the  ori- 
ginal ;  but  it  proved  so  incoherent  and  so  full  of 
puerile  stories,  that  the  task  was  abandoned.  To 
Ah  ibn  Al  Abbas,  surnamed  the  Magian,  from  the 
sect  to  which  he  belonged,  we  are  indebted  for  the 
earliest  as  well  as  the  best  account  of  Arabian  phy- 
sic. This  eminent  author  was  a  star  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude m  the  galaxy  of  learned  men  who  flourished 
at  the  court  ofAdodowlah,  sultan  of  Aleppo.  His 
book,  called  Al  Meleki  or  Royal  Work,  which  ap- 
peared about  the  year  980,  was  intended  to  be  a  com- 
plete system  of  medicine,  and  continued  to  maintain 
its  ascendency  till  superseded  by  the  Canon  oi 
Avicenna. 


S2  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

Al  Razi,  or  Rhazes  as  he  is  commonly  desig- 
nated, is  a  name  of  which  Arabian  literature  has 
reason  to  be  proud.  He  flourished  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, and  had  the  reputation  of  being  deeply  skilled 
in  almost  all  sciences  as  well  as  in  medicine.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  hospital  at  Rhe,  in 
Irak,  his  native  city,  and  afterward  delivered  lec- 
tures in  the  College  of  Bagdad,  in  which  he  was  by 
far  the  most  distinguished  professor  of  his  time. 
His  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  medical  writings,  the 
principal  of  which,  Alhawi  or  the  Continent,  com- 
prehended his  account  of  diseases.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  small  but  curious  tract  on  quacks, 
whom  he  characterizes  with  a  fidelity  that  makes  his 
descriptions  applicable  to  the  pretending  knaves  of 
modern  times.  This  treatise  is  remarkable,  from 
being  the  earliest  medical  work  in  which  Eau  de  vie 
is  mentioned,  as  also  different  kinds  of  beer  manu- 
factured from  rice,  barley,  and  rye.  Another  merit 
of  this  distinguished  scholar,  and  what  perhaps 
above  all  has  tended  to  heighten  his  reputation  as 
an  author,  is  his  treatise  on  small-pox  and  measles, 
being  the  first  account  of  these  diseases  ever  given. 
His  remarks  on  climate,  season,  situation,  and  consti- 
tution, denote  the  accurate  and  philosophic  observer. 
Indeed,  from  the  minute  and  excellent  descriptions  of 
disease  to  be  found  in  his  works,  embracing  not  only 
the  more  commonly  known,  but  others  of  rare  oc- 
currence, and  some  recorded  for  the  first  time,  such 
as  tic  douloureux  and  hypochondria,  there  can  be  as 
little  doubt  that  his  opportunities  of  observation 
were  immense,  as  that  his  genius  enabled  him  to 
turn  his  experience  to  the  best  account. 

But  in  learning  and  reputation,  Rhazes  was  sur- 
passed by  the  famous  Abdallah  ibn  Sina,  a  name 
which  the  Jews  abbreviated  into  Abensina,  and  the 
Christians  into  the  well-known  appellation  of  Avi- 
:;enna.  This  Prince  of  Physicians,  as  the  Arabs 
ienominate  him,  was  a  person  nearly  as  remarkable 
*or  the  extent  and  variety  of  his  precocious  attain- 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  82 

ments  as  the  Admirable  Crichton ;  while  in  the  med- 
ical world  he  attained  a  celebrity  rivalled  only  by 
the  fame  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen.  He  was  bora 
in  the  year  980,  at  a  small  village  near  Bokhara. 
Removing-  to  Bagdad  for  the  prosecution  of  hia 
studies,  he  there  applied  himself  to  the  cultivation 
of  philosophy  and  medicine,  in  both  of  which  his 
progress  was  surprisingly  rapid.  Besides  physic, 
the  range  of  his  acquirements  comprehended  logic, 
morals,  metaphysics,  astronomy,  philology,  mathe- 
matics, natural  history,  and  theology.  While  yet 
in  his  nineteenth  year,  Avicenna  was  regarded 
even  by  the  old  and  experienced  as  a  complete  pro- 
digy of  learning,  and  the  deference  paid  to  his  judg- 
ment was  sufficient  to  flatter  his  utmost  vanity. 
During  his  residence  at  Hamadan,  he  was  chosen 
first  physician  to  the  sultan,  and  afterward  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  vizier.  His  hterary  fame,  and  that  of 
the  brilliant  court  to  which  he  was  attached,  drew 
the  admiration  of  surrounding  princes.  But  his 
popularity  was  short-lived,  and  his  life  seemed  des- 
tined to  be  a  restless  one.  Finding  his  liberty 
endangered,  for  having  refused  the  invitation  of 
Mahmoud  of  Ghizni  to  honour  his  capital  with  a 
visit,  he  withdrew  to  Jorjan,  where  the  splendour 
of  his  reputation,  not  only  as  a  physician  but  a  man 
of  science,  increased  beyond  all  rivalry. 

The  subsequent  history  of  this  remarkable  person- 
age is  short.  Though  possessed  of  an  excellent  con- 
stitution, he  had  so  impaired  it  by  the  use  of  wine, 
and  its  accompanying  vice,  that  he  died  from  intes- 
tinal inflammation,  in  his  56th  year,  at  Hamadan. 
Avicenna  is  one  of  those  on  whom  praise  and  vitu- 
peration have  been  lavished  with  equal  excess.  It 
may  be  somewhat  ditficult  to  account  for  the  despotic 
supremacy  which  his  writings  acquired  in  the  Sa- 
racen schools  ;  for  they  were  not  only  translated, 
abridged,  and  commented  on,  but  formed  text-books 
for  the  professors  in  the  principal  colleges  of  Europe, 
and  continued  the  oracles  of  medical  knowledge  for 


S4  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

nearly  600  years.  His  Cunon  consists  of  five  books, 
each  of  which  has  its  subdivisions.  His  Materia 
Medica  must  have  been  sufficiently  absurd,  as  we 
find  him  recommending  the  administration  of  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones,  with  a  view  to  purify 
the  blood.  It  is  to  this  ridiculous  belief  that  the 
custom  of  gilding  and  silvering  pills  is  to  be  re- 
ferred. In  anatomical  knowledge  he  appears  to  have 
been  extremely  superficial.  To  follow  out  the  intri- 
cacies of  his  pathology,  his  speculations  on  the  func- 
tions of  the  brain,  the  vital  spirits,  pleurisies,  fevers, 
faculties,  and  temperaments,  is  unnecessary  for  our 
purpose.  Posterior  to  Avicenna,  flourished,  among 
many  others  of  lesser  note,  Abulcasis,  Avenzoar, 
and  his  pupil  Averroes,  whose  fame  was  as  distin- 
guished in  medical  as  in  metaphysical  science. 

To  pharmacy  the  Arabs  paid  particular  attention ; 
and  they  deserve  the  credit  of  having  set  the  first 
example  of  publishing  pharmacopoeias  or  regular 
dispensatories,  containing  collections  of  authorized 
formula.  The  shops  of  the  .Saracen  apothecaries 
were  placed  under  the  immediate  superintendence 
of  the  magistrates,  who  took  care  that  they  should 
be  provided  with  genuine  drugs,  and  that  these 
should  be  sold  at  reasonable  prices.  Many  of  the 
pharmaceutical  terms,  as  naphtha,  camphor,  syrup, 
and  jalap,  are  of  Arabian  origin.  In  this  branch 
of  the  science  Avenzoar  was  well  versed ;  and  in  his 
treatise  we  find  accounts  of  both  simple  and  com- 
pound medicines  not  elsewhere  to  be  met  with.  The 
discovering  of  antidotes  for  poisonous  plants  seems 
to  have  been  a  favourite  research  with  him.  Vari- 
ous other  writers  enlarged  the  limits  of  pharmacy. 
The  elder  Messue  employed,  as  emetics,  powder  of. 
fine  bark,  and  decoctions  of  hyssop  ;  and  as  a  styptic 
in  violent  bowel-complaints  he  had  recourse  to  the 
•rennet  of  different  animals,  particularly  the  hare. 
In  curing  similar  disorders,  Serapion  advised  boiled 
milk,  in  which  red-hot  iron  had  been  dipped. 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  85 

In  anatomy  and  surgery,  the  Arabs  never  attained 
to  any  remarkable  proficiency.  The  polhited  touch 
of  the  dead  alarmed  the  most  determined  naturalist ; 
and  the  orthodox  Mussulman  felt  himself  debarred 
from  this  impious  knowledge  by  the  prejudices  of 
his  creed.  When  Toderini  asked  a  mufti  if  it  was 
allowable  to  practise  human  dissection,  he  Avas  told 
')  that  the  very  question  itself  was  an  infringement  of 
^  their  divine  law.  To  mutilate  a  corpse  was  prohibited 
by  the  religious  belief  that  the  soul  does  not  depart 
from  the  body  at  the  moment  of  death,  but  remains, 
after  deserting  the  other  members,  for  a  consider- 
able time  in  the  breast.  Besides,  it  was  deemed 
necessary  to  appear  entire  at  the  stern  tribunal  of 
IMunkir  and  Nakir,  to  undergo  the  sepulchral  exami- 
nation. Hence  the  anatomical  studies  of  the  Arabs 
were  restricted  to  the  lower  animals,  and  skeletons 
in  the  cemeteries.  In  their  writings  on  the  subject, 
they  did  little  piore  than  translate  and  paraphrase 
the  works  of  the  Greeks. 

The  surgery  of  Ali  Abbas  has  some  distinctive 
features ;  for  though  he  modestly  professed  only  to 
be  a  copyist,  he  made  a  great  many  observations 
peculiar  to  himself.  His  son,  Avho  followed  the 
same  profession,  was  the  author  of  a  book  on  the 
diseases  of  the  eye.  In  operating  for  cataract,  i^vi- 
cenna  recommended  depression  ;  and  speaks  of  ex- 
traction, which  he  had  several  times  seen  practised, 
as  a  very  dangerous  experiment.  The  most  emi- 
nent of  the  Arabian  surgeons  was  Abulcasis,  whose 
name  has  been  already  introduced.  He  complained 
of  the  deplorable  state  into  which  the  art  had  fallen 
in  his  day ;  and  informs  us  that  the  Spanish  prac- 
titioners dashed  into  all  kinds  of  operations  without 
knowing  in  the  least  degree  the  nature  of  the  parts 
they  were  dividing,  and  consequently  without  at- 
tending to  the  precautions  necessary  for  averting 
danger.  His  surgery  is  arranged  into  three  books ; 
the  first  treating  of  caustics,  the  second  of  surgical 
Vol.  II.— H 


86  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

diseases,  and  the  third  of  luxations,  together  with 
some  miscellaneous  particulars.  * 

Abulcasis  is  the  only  ancient  writer  on  anatomy 
that  has  described  the  instruments  used  in  each  par- 
ticular operation.  To  him  we  owe  the  invention 
of  the  pro^ang,  an  elastic  rod  tipped  with  sponge, 
for  dislodgmg  extraneous  substances  from  the  gullet. 
Another  instrument  of  his  own,  was  that  for  ope- 
rating in  fistula  lachrj'malis,  which  he  has  explained, 
as  also  the  needle  used  by  the  oriental  surgeons  for 
cataract.  The  knife,  which  he  calls  alnessil,  and 
used  in  the  section  of  a  vein,  as  distinct  from  punc- 
ture, is  by  some  presumed  to  be  our  common  lancet 
— a  term  which  the  French  borrowed  from  the  an- 
cient Gauls-  The  myrtle  and  olive  knives,  so  called 
from  resembling  in  shape  the  leaves  of  these  plants, 
were  employed  for  blood-letting  by  incision.  For 
opening  veins  in  the  forehead,  use  was  made  of  the 
fosserium,  said  to  resemble  the  phl^me  for  bleeding 
cattle,  and  which  required  percussion  to  make  it 
penetrate  the  skin.  We  jearn"?rom  Casiri,  that 
among  the  Escurial  manuscripts  there  is  a  treatise 
in  the  Cufic  character,  which  contains  a  collection 
of  plates  of  surgical  instruments. 

Botany,  as  subsidiary  to  medicine,  was  cultivated 
by  the  Arabs  with  considerable  success.  This  sci- 
ence they  advanced  far  beyond  the  state  in  which  it 
had  been  left  by  Dioscorides,  who  flourished  about 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  His  herbal 
they  enriched  by  the  addition  of  2000  plants ;  and 
their  knowledge  of  the  vegetable  world  enabled 
them  to  insert  in  their  pharmacopoeias  several  ' 
remedies  which  had  been  unknown  to  the  Greeks. 
Rhazes,  Ali  Abbas,  and  Avicenna  are  names  that 
adorn  the  annals  of  this  elegant  and  useful  study ; 
but  the  most  distinguished  of  all  the  Arabian  bota- 
nists was  Ibn  al  Beithar,  a  native  of  Malaga.  In  his 
zeal  for  herborizing,  he  travelled  over  every  part  of 
Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia ;  inspected  and  analyzed 
every  thing  that  was  rare,  curious,  or  valuable  in  the 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  87 

three  kingdoms  of  nature  ;  and,  on  his  return,  pub- 
lished the  result  of  his  investigations  in  three  books : 
first,  on  the  nature  and  virtues  of  plants — second,  on 
metals  and  minerals — and  third,  on  animals.  He 
died  at  Damascus  in  the  year  1248,  in  which  city- 
he  held  the  dignity  of  vizier.  Casiri  mentions  an- 
other eminent  botanist,  Ibn  Phara,  a  celebrated  phy- 
sician of  Corella,  who  was  appointed  curator  of  the 
botanical  garden  of  the  Sultan  Alnasar.  Albiruni, 
who  died  in  941,  travelled  in  India  during  the  long, 
period  of  forty  years,  to  observe  the  nature  and 
properties  of  the  mineral  and  vegetable  kingdoms ; 
and  has  given  the  result  of  his  researches  in  a 
rare  and  exceedingly  valuable  treatise  on  precious 
stones. 

The  praise  of  originality,  however,  is  more  justly 
due  to  the  Saracens  for  their  discoveries  in  chymis- 
try,  of  which  they  may  be  considered  as  the  invent- 
ors, in  so  far  as  regards  its  introduction  into  medi- 
cine. Before  their  time  this  science  was  degraded 
to  the  same  level  with  magic  and  astrology,  and 
confounded  with  the  reveries  of  alchymy,  or  the  art 
of  making  gold  by  means  of  the  philosopher's  stone, 
which  is  usually  described  as  a  red  powder,  having 
a  peculiar  smell.  Besides  the  virtue  of  transmuting 
metals,  this  precious  compound  was  beheved  to  have 
the  inherent  property  of  charming  evil  spirits,  curing 
all  diseases,  aiid  protracting  the  span  of  human  ex- 
istence to  an  indefinite  extent.  The  history  of  al- 
chymy, from  first  to  last,  is  full  of  fiction  and  obscu- 
rity, and  consists  of  little  else  than  an  account  of 
dupes  and  impostors  who  made  a  livelihood  by  vend- 
ing their  mystic  nostrums  to  the  ignorant  at  an  ex- 
travagant price  ;  for,  strange  as  it  may  appear,  mul- 
titudes were  found  credulous  enough  to  believe  that 
wealth  and  immortality  could  be  bottled  up  in  thumb- 
vials,  or  extracted  by  means  of  the  crucible  from 
oxides  and  powders. 

This  study,  however,  was  attended  witji  many 
incidental  advantages,  by  extending  the  boundaries 


88  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

of  chymical  knowledge,  teaching  a  greater  degree 
of  facility  in  operations,  and  leading  to  the  discov- 
ery of  many  new  and  valuable  sulDstances  which, 
without  some  such  strong  incentive,  would  have 
perhaps  remained  much  longer  in  obscurity.  Struck 
with  the  result  of  investigations  which  they  did  not 
understand,  the  Arabs  applied  themselves  to  this  de- 
partment of  science,  with  the  view  of  making  it 
subservient  to  the  composition  of  medicines  and  the 
cure  of  diseases.  In  conducting  distillations,  and 
detecting  the  properties  of  various  bodies,  they 
made  great  improvements.  The  three  mineral 
acids  were  discovered ;  the  vegetable  and  mineral 
alkalies  were  distinguished  from  each  other ;  and 
the  preparation  of  alcohol  made  known.  Rhazes  is 
generally  allowed  to  be  the  first  regular  practi- 
tioner that  made  use  of  chymical  remedies ;  and 
from  his  mentioning  corrosive  sublimate  and  mer- 
curia.1  ointment,  various  preparations  of  arsenic,  the 
sulphates  of  copper  and  iron,  saltpetre,  and  borax, 
it  is  evident  that  the  science  had  already  passed  its 
infancy. 

But  the  true  patriarch  of  Arabian  chymistry  was 
the  famous  Geber,  a  native  of  Harran  in  Mesopota- 
mia, who  lived  in  the  eighth  century.  Little  is 
known  of  this  writer,  except  his  works,  which  con- 
tain many  and  important  chymical  facts.  Besides 
the  metals,  sulphur,  and  salt,  with  which  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  were  familiar,  he  knew  the  method  of 
preparing  sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  aqua  regia. 
He  was  familiar  with  the  art  of  dissolving  the  metals, 
by  means  of  these  acids,  and  actually  prepared 
nitrate  of  silver  and  corrosive  sublimate.  He  was 
acquainted  with  potash  and  soda,  both  in  the  state 
of  carbonates  and  caustic.  He  was  aware  that 
these  alkalies  dissolve  sulphur,  and  he  employed  the 
process  to  obtain  it  in  a  state  of  purity. 

Of  Geber's  works,  so  far  as  they  have  appeared 
in  Latin  or  English,  we  possess  only  four  tracts ; 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  ^9 

though  D'Herbelot  states  that  he  wrote  500  volumes 
on  chymistry.  The  greater  number  of  chymical 
processes,  such  as  they  were  almost  to  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  were  perfectly  known  to 
him  ;  and  if  we  compare  his  writings  with  those  of 
Dioscorides  and  Pliny,  we  shall  perceive  the  vast 
progress  which  chymistry,  or  rather  pharmacy,  had 
made  in  the  schools  of  the  Saracens.^The  early 
nomenclature  of  the  science  demj9ilstrates  how 
much  it  owes  to  the  Arabs^^.^he  terms  alcohol, 
alembic,  alkali,  aludel,  au&'mhers,  clearly  indicate 
their  derivation ;  nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that 
those  characters  of  drugs,  essences,  extracts,  and 
medicines  which  are  frequently  to  be  found  in  apothe- 
caries' shops,  and  which  to  vulgar  eyes  appear  to  be 
vested  with  occult  powers  of  healing,  are  all  to  be 
traced  to  them.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Sprengel,  that 
the  writings  of  the  Arabs,  even  at  the  present  day, 
might  be  of  service,  were  our  chymists  and  physi- 
cians capable  of  perusing  the  works  of  Geber,  Mes- 
sue,  Rhazes,  Averroes,  and  Avicenna  in  the  native 
tongue. 

Allied  to  medicine  was  the  science  of  astrology, 
which  the  Saracens  cultivated  with'great  zeal.  The 
doctrine  of  sidereal  influences  is  very  ancient ;  and 
at  a  later  peridfreach  part  and  member  of  the  human 
body  was  assigned  to  the  custody  or  dominion  of  a 
particular  star.  The  heart,  brain,  liver,  spleen, 
bile,  kidneys,  and  other  viscera  were  successively 
aflfected  by  the  sun  and  moon,  and  by  the  planets 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  Mercury,  Mars,  and  Venus  ;  so  that 
a  physician,  before  he  could  understand  or  attempt 
to  cure  a  disease,  had  to  ascertain  the  magical 
harmony  between  the  planets  and  the  habits  of  his 
patient.  He  durst  not  venture  to  draw  blood  with- 
out consulting  the  position  of  the  heavens,  nor  order 
a  cathartic  unless  the  constellations  were  favoura- 
ble. With  a  people  so  superstitious  as  the  Arabs, 
such  a  science  could  not  fail  to  be  popular.    Accord- 

H2 


90  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

ingly  its  professors,  independently  of  all  medical 
considerations,  were  seen  in  the  courts,  and  con- 
sulted in  the  cabinets  of  princes  ;  and  no  public  or 
even  private  enterprise  of  moment  was  undertaken 
without  previously  obtaining  the  concurrence  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

The  most  flourishing  period  of  Arabian  astron- 
omy was  the  reign  of  Almamoun,  who  was  himself 
devoted  to  the  study  of  this  science.  He  caused  a 
complete  digest  of  it  to  be  composed  by  the  most 
eminent  men  of  his  court,  and  provided  at  his  own 
cost  the  necessary  instruments  of  observation. 
The  land  of  the  Chaldeans  still  supplied  the  same 
spacious  level,  the  same  unclouded  horizon ;  and 
under  his  munificent  patronage  the.  philosophers  of 
Bagdad,  first  on  the  plains  of  Shinar,  and  a  second 
time  on  those  of  Cufa,  accurately  measured  a  de- 
gree of  the  great  circle  of  the  earth,  and  determined 
at  24,000  miles  the  entire  circumference  of  our 
globe.  The  process  by  which  this  remarkable  mea- 
surement was  conducted  is  described  by  Abulfeda, 
from  the  relation  of  Ibn  Khallican  and  the  best  his- 
torians. The  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  was  calcu- 
lated at  about  ^venty-three  degrees  and  a  half; 
but  not  a  single  step  was  made  towards  the  discov- 
ery of  the  solar  system  beyond  the  "hypothesis  of 
Ptolemy. 

Among  the  Arabian  astronomers  were  several 
who  distinguished  themselves  both  by  their  writings 
and  observations.  Albumazar  published  an  Intro- 
duction to  Astronomy — a  Treatise  on  the  Conjunc- 
tion of  the  Planets — and  another  on  the  Origin,  De- 
rivation, and  End  of  the  World.  The  celebrated 
Alfragani  composed  a  classical  work  entitled  Ele- 
ments of  Astronomy,  of  which  a  translation,  with 
notes,  has  been  given  by  Professor  Golius,  and 
which  presents  a  concise  exposition  of  Ptolemy's 
Almagest.  This  author  likewise  produced  a  trea- 
tise on  solar  clocks,  and  on  the  astrolabe.    Moham- 


« 
LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  91 

med  ibn  Musa,  Abdallah  ibn  Salial,  and  Yahia  ibn 
Mansor  were  eminent  writers  on  this  science,  and 
their  astronomical  tables  were  admired  for  their 
exactness.  Albathani  (or  Albategni),  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  that  adorned  the  court  of  Mokta- 
der,  was  justly  renowned  as  the  author  of  the  Sabian 
tables,  drawn  up  from  the  astronomical  observa- 
tions which  he  made  in  the  course  of  forty  years 
(A.  D.  879-921),  at  Racca,  on  the  Euphrates.  His 
laborious  researches  were  of  the  highest  importance 
to  the  science.  He  gave  a  new  and  improved  theory 
of  the  sun,  from  which  some  valuable  results  were 
derived  ;  and  supplied  the  defects  of  the  Ptolemsean 
tables  by  his  more  accurate  observations.  His 
work  on  "  The  Science  of  the  Stars,"  which  is  still 
extant,  long  held  a  very  high  place  in  the  estima- 
tion of  philosophers.  We  owe  to  him  a  more  cor- 
rect calculation  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  than 
had  hitherto  been  made ;  he  also  determined  the 
annual  movement  of  the  equinoxes,  and  found  the 
duration  of  the  tropical  year  to  be  365  days  and  a 
decimal  fraction. 

His  contemporaiy,  Ibn  Korrah,  likewise  observed 
the  declination  of  the  ecliptic — distinguished  the 
motion  of  the  apogee  of  the  sun  and  planets  from 
that  of  the  stars  in  longitude  ;  and,  Avhat  is  most  im- 
portant of  all,  ascertained  that  the  solar  revolution 
was  completed  in  365  days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  and 
12  seconds — a  calculation  not  very  different  from 
that  now  in  use.  Arzakel,  the  reputed  author  of  the 
Toledan  tables,  who  flourished  towards  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century,  was  famous  for  his  hypothesis 
to  account  for  the  diminution  of  the  sun's  eccen- 
tricity, which  he  conceived  to  have  taken  place 
since  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  and  the  motion  of  the 
sun's  apogee.  His  idea  was  adopted  by  Coperni- 
cus ;  and  subsequently  applied  to  the  moon  by  Ho- 
roccius,  Newton,  Flamstead,  and  Halley. 

Modern  astronomy  is  indebted  to  the  Saracens  for 


92  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

the  introduction  of  observatories.  Appended  to  the 
celebrated  mosque  at  Seville  was  the  lofty  tower  of 
the  Giraldo,  built  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
famous  mathematician  Geber  (A.  D.  1196),  which 
long  served  this  purpose,  and  which  still  remains 
one  of  the  most  noble  and  ancient  monuments,  per- 
haps, in  Christendom,  in  honour  of  this  science. 
The  learned  Bailly  attributes  the  revival  of  astron- 
omy to  the  Spanish  Arabs,  and  the  translations  of 
the  works  of  Alfragani.  He  affirms  that  Kepler 
drew  the  ideas  that  led  to  his  discovery  of  the  ellip- 
tical orbits  of  planets  from  Nureddin  Petrucci,  whose 
Treatise  on  the  Sphere  is  preserved  in  the  Escurial. 
From  Lalande  and  Andres  we  learn  that  Alfonso  X., 
king  of  Castile,  who  has  immortalized  himself  by 
his  astronomical  pursuits,  and  whose  tables  have 
contributed  so  much  to  promote  the  knowledge  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  received  his  information  chiefly 
from  the  Moors,  whom  his  liberality  induced  to 
settle  at  Toledo. 

The  schools  of  Bagdad  and  Cordova  did  not  neg- 
lect the  study  of  optics.  Alfarabi,  Ibn  Haitim,  and 
Alhazen  devoted  their  attention  to  this  subject ;  but 
the  works  of  the  two  former  are  lost.  The  treatise 
of  the  latter,  who  wrote  in  the  twelfth  century,  has 
been  frequently  noticed.  It  is  cited  by  our  distin- 
guished countryman  Roger  Bacon ;  and  was  illus- 
trated by  Vitellio,  a  native  of  Poland,  who  lived  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  mathematics,  though 
the  Saracens  did  not  ascend  to  the  higher  branches, 
yet  in  the  other  division  of  the  science  their  know- 
ledge was  far  from  being  inconsiderable.  The 
works  of  the  most  eminent  Greek  geometricians 
were  translated,  and  the  schools  of  the  East  sup- 
plied in  their  vernacular  tongue  with  versions  of 
Euclid,  Theodosius,  Hypsicles,  Menelaus,  and  Apol- 
lonius  of  Perga. 

How  highly  these  studies  were  valued  by  Alma- 
moim,  may  be  imagined  from  his  liberal  offer  of  100 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  93 

pounds'  weight  of  gold  to  engage  in  his  service  the 
famous  mathematician  Leo  of  Constantinople,  who 
was  then  employed  by  the  Emperor  Theophilus  in 
delivering  lectures  and  establishing  schools  in  his 
capital.  But  the  invitation  was  declined ;  as  the 
Greeks,  from  a  foolish  vanity  of  their  superior  ex- 
cellence, were  jealous  of  imparting  to  heathen  the 
sacred  fire  of  their  learning.  Ibn  Korrah  enriched 
the  literature  of  his  country  with  translations  of 
Archimedes  and  the  Conies  of  ApoUonius.  But 
none  of  them  seem  to  have  bequeathed  to  the  world 
any  treatises  of  importance  ;  and,  at  the  revival  of 
letters  in  the  fifteenth  century,  this  branch  of  the 
science  is  said  to  have  been  found  nearly  in  the 
state  in  which  it  was  left  by  Euclid.  Brucker,  in 
his  History  of  Philosophy,  maintains  that  the  Sara- 
cens owed  their  mathematical  knowledge  solely  to 
the  Greeks,  and  that  the  study  made  no  progress 
w^hatever  in  their  hands.  But  later  writers,  par- 
ticularly Montucla,  have  done  ample  justice  to  their 
researches  in  certain  departments  of  this  sublime 
science. 

Trigonometry  derived  from  the  Arabs  the  form 
which  it  still  retains.  They  substituted  the  use  of 
sines  for  that  of  the  chord,  which  had  been  employed 
by  the  ancients.  Ibn  Musa  and  Geber  composed 
original  works  on  spherical  trigonometry  ;  and  Al- 
kendi,  besides  his  own  treatise,  De  Sex  Quantitatihus, 
translated  that  of  Autolycus,  De  Sphara  Mota.  Al- 
gebra, though  not  the  invention  of  the  Saracens, 
received  valuable  accessions  from  their  talents ; 
and,  on  comparing  them  with  their  predecessors, 
their  advances  will  perhaps  be  found  as  conspicuous 
as  the  improvements  which  have  been  suggested 
and  the  progress  that  has  been  made  by  later  and 
even  by  modern  proficients.  Ibn  Korrah  and  Ibn 
Musa  are  the  earliest  Arabian  mathematicians  who 
have  treated  on  this  science.  The  former  wrote 
on   the   certainty  of   the    demonstrations   of  the 


94  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

algebraic  calculus,  and  the  latter  is  accounted  the 
inventor  of  the  solution  of  equations  of  the  second 
degree.  There  is  an  original  treatise  by  Omar  ibn 
Ibrahim,  on  the  Algebra  of  Cubic  Equations,  which 
exists  in  manuscript  in  the  library  of  the  Univer- 
sity at  Leyden ;  and  we  learn  from  Casiri  that  the 
principles  and  the  praises  of  this  science  were 
sung  in  an  elaborate  poem  by  Alcassem,  a  native 
of  Granada. 

The  numerical  characters,  w^hich  have  tended  so 
much  to  simphfy  and  abridge  calculations,  and  with- 
out which  none  of  the  exact  sciences  could  have 
been  carried  to  the  point  at  which  they  have  arrived 
in  our  day,  were  beyond  all  doubt  communicated 
to  us  by  the  Arabs.  They  were  not,  however,  the 
inventors  of  these  digits,  which,  as  well  as  their 
arithmetic,  they  acknowledge  to  have  received  from 
the  East ;  and  many  of  their  treatises  on  this  sub- 
ject they  denominate  "  Indian  Arithmetic,"  "  The 
Art  of  Computing  according  to  the  Indians,"  &c. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans, and  perhaps  other  nations,  used  alphabetical 
letters  for  the  representation  of  numbers.  The 
Indians  adopted  this  simple  and  natural  method ; 
and  their  original  numerals,  of  which  the  Arabic 
ciphers  are  merely  an  abridgement,  may  be  consid- 
ered as  primitive  words  or  characters.  Their  use 
and  general  diffusion  in  Europe  must  be  ascribed  to 
the  persevering  industry  of  the  famous  Gerbert, 
afterward  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  who  is  the  first  phi- 
losopher known  to  have  visited  Spain  in  the  pursuit 
of  knowledge.  On  his  return  he  founded  two 
schools — one  at  Bobbio  in  Italy,  and  another  at 
Rheims  in  France,  both  of  which  were  numerously 
attended,  and  contributed  to  give  a  new  turn  to  the 
study  of  philosophy. 

Their  mathematical  and  mechanical  knowledge 
the  Arabs  turned  to  various  purposes  of  multiplying 
and  improving  the  conveniences  of  life — such  as  the 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  95 

construction  of  aqueducts,  baths,  cisterns,  and  ca- 
nals. Their  acquaintance  with  hydrauhcs  is  mani- 
fest from  the  number  of  mills  and  other  waterworks 
employed  in  the  useful  process  of  irrigation.  Ac- 
customed to  an  arid  and  sultry  climate,  they  consid- 
ered the  command  of  water  to  be  a  material  requi- 
site in  every  country  Avhere  they  settled.  The  pon- 
tanos  or  reservoirs  in  Spain,  and  the  tanks  in  Africa, 
were  either  erected  or  restored  by  them.  Their 
palaces  and  mosques  were  furnished  with  capacious 
cisterns.  The  gardens  of  the  Alhambra  contained 
sheets  of  water,  in  the  surface  of  which  the  build- 
ings were  reflected ;  and  in  most  of  the  principal 
cities  fountains  played  in  the  streets,  as  well  as  in 
the  courts  of  the  houses,  by  which  the  atmosphere 
was  attempered  during  summer.  Tn  the  famous 
palace  of  Toledo  was  a  pond,  in  the  midst  of  which 
rose  a  vaulted  room  of  stained  glass  adorned  with 
gold.  Into  this  apartment  the  caliph  could  enter 
untouched  by  the  water,  and  sit  while  a  cascade 
poured  from  above,  with  tapers  burning  before  him. 
We  are  not  aware  that  any  discoveries  of  theirs  in 
hydrostatics  have  been  transmitted  to  us  ;  but  the 
titles  of  two  works  by  the  celebrated  Alkendi  are 
mentioned  in  Casiri,  viz.  on  Bodies  that  Float  on 
Water,  and  on  Bodies  that  Sink. 

Architecture  was  an  art  in  which  the  Arabs  par- 
ticularly excelled ;  and  the  revenues  of  kingdoms 
were  expended  in  erecting  public  buildings,  of  which 
Jerusalem,  Babylon,  and  Baalbec,  afforded  the  most 
stupendous  models.  It  has  been  observed  as  a  cir- 
cumstance worthy  of  remark,  that  no  people  ever 
constructed  so  many  edifices  as  the  Arabs,  who  ex- 
tracted fewer  materials  from  the  quarry.  From  the 
Tigris  to  the  Orontes,  from  the  Nile  to  the  Guadal- 
quiver,  the  buildings  of  the  first  settlers  were  raised 
from  the  wreck  of  cities,  castles,  and  fortresses, 
which  they  had  destroyed. 

In  the  style  of  architecture,  the  Arabs  both  of  the 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

East  and  the  West  had  a  kindred  resemblance,  as 
appears  by  contrasting-  the  disposition  of  the  apart- 
ments of  the  Alhambra,  and  other  remains  of  Moor- 
ish art,  with  the  accounts  given  by  travellers  relative 
to  the  general  mode  of  oriental  buildings.  While 
little  attention,  comparatively,  was  bestowed  on  the 
exterior  of  their  mansions,  on  the  furniture  and  ac- 
commodation within  every  thing  was  lavished  that 
could  promote  luxurious  ease  and  personal  comfort. 
Their  rooms  v/ere  so  contrived  that  no  reverberation 
of  sound  was  heard.  The  light  was  generally  ad- 
mitted in  such  a  manner  as,  by  excluding  external 
prospects,  to  confine  the  admiration  of  the  spectator 
chiefly  to  the  ornaments  and  beauties  of  the  interior. 
Their  arrangements  for  ventilation  were  admirable  ; 
and  by  means  of  caleducts,  or  tubes  of  baked  earth, 
warm  air  was  admitted,  so  as  to  preserve  a  uniform 
temperature.  The  utmost  labour  and  skill  were 
expended  in  embellishing  the  walls  and  ceilings. 
Their  tiles  had  a  blue  glazing  over  them ;  their 
paving-bricks  were  made  of  different  colours, — blue, 
white,  black,  or  yellow, — which,  when  properly  con- 
trasted, had  a  very  agreeable  effect.  Nothing  is 
more  astonishing  than  the  durability  of  the  Moorish 
edifices.  The  stucco  composition  on  their  walls 
became  hard  as  stone ;  and,  even  in  the  present 
century,  specimens  are  found  without  a  crack  or  a 
flaw  on  their  whole  surface.  Their  woodwork  also, 
which  is  of  a  more  fragile  nature,  still  remains  in  a 
state  of  wonderful  preservation.  The  floors  and 
ceilings  of  the  Alhambra  have  withstood  the  neglect 
and  dilapidation  of  nearly  700  years  ;  the  pine-wood 
continues  perfectly  sound,  without  exhibiting  the 
slightest  mark  of  dry-rot,  worm,  or  insect.  The 
coat  of  white  paint  retains  its  colour  so  bright  and 
rich,  that  it  may  be  mistaken  for  mother-of-pearl. 

The  history  of  Arabian  architecture  comprises  a 
period  of  about  800  years ;  which  M.  Laborde  has 
divided  into  three  distinct  epochs,  marking  its  rise, 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS  97 

progress,  and  decay.  From  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  era  of  its  dechne  in  Spain,  it  exhibited 
a  mixture  of  styles  borrowed  from  the  revival  of  the 
arts  in  Italy.  The  origin  of  what  is  called  Gothic 
architecture,  we  know,  has  been  much  disputed ;  but 
among  the  different  hypotheses,  that  of  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren,  which  derives  it  from  the  Arabs,  is 
certainly  the  most  probable.  The  crescent  arch, 
said  to  be  the  symbol  of  a  celebrated  goddess  whose 
worship  among  the  ancients  was  universal,  was  first 
adopted  by  the  Arabs  of  Syria,  and  invariably  used 
in  the  edifices  erected  by  them  during  the  reigns  of 
the  Ommiades.  After  their  dethronement  the  Ab- 
bassides,  disdaining  to  imitate  their  rivals,  introduced 
at  Bagdad  an  arch  resembhng  the  section  of  an  oval 
taken  below  the  transverse  diameter.  A  similar 
form  was  adopted  by  the  sovereigns  of  Granada ;  but 
it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  so  long  as  the  house  of 
Moawiyah  ruled  in  Spain,  the  arch  of  their  Syrian 
ancestors  prevailed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pyre- 
nees. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  was  unfriendly  to  what 
we  usually  denominate  the  fine  arts.  To  the  first 
Moslems  painting  and  sculpture  were  considered 
odious,  as  leading  to  idolatry  and  a  breach  of  their 
Divine  law.  Subsequently,  however,  these  scruples 
decreased  as  literature  and  the  arts  were  introduced ; 
and  the  caliphs,  both  of  the  East  and  the  West, 
evaded  or  violated  with  impunity  the  prohibitions 
of  the  Koran.  At  first,  as  a  substitute  for  pictorial 
delineation,  the  orthodox  artists  patiently  traced 
those  Hneal  ornaments  of  Mosaic  and  network  which 
covered  the  interior  of  their  mosques  and  palaces.  It 
was  the  same  religious  feelings  that  gave  birth  to  that 
peculiar  style  of  embellishment,  which  from  the 
Arabs  has  been  denominated  the  Arabesque^  and 
which  rejects  human  or  animal  figures  ;  the  subjects, 
whether  painted  or  sculptured,  consisting  wholly  of 
imaginary  plants,  flowers,  or  foliage.    In  later  times 

Vol.  II.— I 


98  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

the  restraints  of  religion  yielded  more  and  more  to 
the  progress  of  the  arts.  Some  of  the  Eastern 
caliphs  caused  their  images  to  be  stamped  on  their 
coins.  In  Spain,  Abdalrahman  111.  ventured  to  place 
the  statue  of  his  favourite  mistress  over  the  magnifi- 
cent palace  which  he  had  erected  for  her  reception. 
The  Alhambra  had  its  sculptured  lions,  its  orna- 
mented tiles,  and  historical  paintings. 

In  one  branch  of  the  fine  arts,  that  of  calligraphy 
or  ornamental  writing,  the  Saracens  particularly  ex- 
celled. The  extensive  manufacture  of  translations 
brought  this  necessary  accomplishment  to  a  very 
high  degree  of  perfection.  Afrihi  ibn  Adi,  a  Jacob- 
ite Christian,  who  flourished  at  Bagdad  under  the 
caliphs  Mostakfi  and  Almoti,  and  was  much  em- 
ployed in  transcribing  books  of  literature,  wrote  so 
fine  a  hand  as  to  resemble  tj^ography ;  and  with 
such  expedition,  that  in  the  course  of  a  day  and  a 
night  he  could  finish  200  pages.  His  contemporary 
Ahdab,  surnamed  Al  Mozawer,  or  the  Falsifier,  was 
the  most  ingenious  forger  and  imitator  of  penman- 
ship that  any  country  ever  produced.  He  could 
counterfeit  any  hand  ;  and  with  such  dexterity,  that 
even  the  person  whose  autograph  was  imitated  could 
not  distinguish  the  copy  from  the  original.  Ado- 
dowlah,  the  vizier  of  Almoti  and  Altai,  turned  this 
singular  faculty  to  his  own  advantage,  by  causing 
him  to  write  letters  calculated  to  sow  jealousy  and 
dissension  between  such  of  the  neighbouring  princes 
as  he  wished  to  subdue ;  and  this  fictitious  corres- 
pondence often  produced  the  desired  effect.  To  the 
Chinese  and  Persians,  the  Arabs  were  indebted  for 
their  method  of  imparting  a  remarkable  purity  and 
neatness  to  their  paper.  They  employed  inks  of 
extraordinary  lustre,  and  studied  to  adorn  their 
manuscripts  with  beautiful  and  vivid  colours,  so  as 
to  render  them  more  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Music  was  an  art  to  which  the  Arabs  were  ar- 
dently attached.     But  the  rude  and  natural  strains  in 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  99 

which  the  shepherds  of  the  Desert  sung  their  loves 
and  their  wars,  became  under  the  cahphs  a  study 
and  a  science.  Its  professors  were  cherished  and 
honoured  in  the  courts  of  their  sovereigns,  who  en- 
couraged their  exertions,  as  they  did  those  of  the 
poets,  by  handsome  rewards.  At  Bagdad  and  Cor- 
dova schools  were  established  expressly  for  the 
cultivation  of  this  delightful  art ;  and  from  these 
seminaries  issued  many  illustrious  performers.  Ot 
the  effects  of  their  skill  some  very  extraordinary  but 
well-attested  instances  have  been  recorded,  which 
may  justify  the  remark  that,  like  the  famed  Timo- 
theus  of  old,  they  could,  by  the  magic  touches  of 
their  lute,  raise  or  depress  at  pleasure  the  passions 
of  their  masters.  Isaac  Almouseli,  so  called  from 
Mosul  where  he  resided,  is  ranked  by  the  orientals 
among  the  most  distinguished  musicians  that  ever 
lived.  Mahadi,  father  of  Haroun  al  Raschid,  having 
accidentally  heard  him  sing  one  of  his  compositions, 
accompanied  by  a  lute,  was  so  charmed  with  the 
performance  that  he  appointed  him  chief  musician 
to  the  court, — an  office  which  he  filled  with  univer- 
sal applause  during  the  reign  of  five  successive  ca- 
liphs. Haroun,  whose  inauguration  he  commemo- 
rated in  a  short  poem  still  extant,  was  delighted 
with  his  talents,  and  considered  his  presence  neces- 
sary in  every  part  of  amusement. 

This  prince  had  other  reasons  for  admiring  his 
musical  powers.  He  had  quarrelled  with  his  fa- 
vourite mistress  Meridah,  and  determined  never  to 
see  her  more.  The  lady  became  inconsolable.  Jaaf- 
far,  the  vizier,  imparted  her  distress  to  Almouseli, 
and  requested  him  to  perform  before  the  caliph  a 
song  composed  on  the  occasion ;  which  he  did  with 
such  pathos  of  execution,  that  in  a  fit  of  sudden  affec- 
tion, the  repentant  monarch  rushed  into  the  presence 
of  Meridah,  implored  her  to  forgive  his  indiscretion, 
and  bury  their  unhappy  discords  in  eternal  oblivion. 
Overjoyed  at  this  unexpected  revolution  of  fortune. 


100  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

the  lady  ordered  10,000  drachms  (229Z.  3^.  4^.)  to  be 
given  to  Jaaffar,  and  as  much  to  Almouseli ;  while 
the  caliph  doubled  the  present  to  both. 

Abu  Mohammed,  another  musician  of  Bagdad, 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  the  Caliph  Vathek,  who 
was  so  enchanted  with  one  of  his  compositions,  that 
he  threw  his  own  robe  over  the  shoulders  of  the 
performer,  and  ordered  him  a  donation  of  100,000 
drachms  (0291^.  13s.  6d.).  The  famous  Al  Farabi, 
whose  universal  attainments  have  been  already  no- 
ticed, was  so  eminently  skilled  in  music,  that  he  has 
been  styled  the  Arabian  Orpheus.  On  his  return 
from  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  he  introduced  himself 
at  the  court  of  Saifadowlah,  the  first  sultan  of  Alep- 
po, whom  he  astonished  with  the  variety  of  his 
accomplishments.  After  disputing  with  the  most 
learned  doctors  of  the  court,  whom  he  put  to  silence, 
he  joined  a  band  of  musicians  that  were  accidentally 
performing,  and  accompanied  them  with  his  lute. 
The  prince  was  delighted,  and  requested  to  hear 
some  composition  of  his  own, — one  of  which  in  three 
parts  he  immediately  produced  and  distributed  among 
the  band.  The  first  movement,  we  are  told,  threw 
the  sultan  and  his  courtiers  into  a  fit  of  excessive 
laughter  ; — the  second  melted  them  into  tears  ; — and 
the  last  lulled  even  the  performers  themselves  to 
sleep.  Al  Farabi  wrote  a  work  on  the  subject,  en- 
titled the  Elements  of  Music,  preserved  in  the  Es- 
curial,  which  treats  on  the  principles  of  the  art,  the 
harmony  of  natural  and  artificial  sounds,  and  the  va- 
rious kinds  of  musical  composition,  besides  contain- 
ing the  notes  or  gamut  of  the  Arabs,  and  upwards  of 
thirty  figures  of  their  musical  instruments.  Another 
work  on  the  same  subject  is  the  Kitab  Al  Agani,  or 
Great  Collection  of  Songs,  by  the  celebrated  com- 
poser and  poet  Abulfaraji.  Of  two  volumes,  the  first 
only  is  extant,  which  contains  150  ariettas,  the  lives 
of  fourteen  distinguished  musicians,  and  four  emi- 
nent female  singers.     There  is  a  striking  similitude 


LITERATrRE    OF    THE    ARABS.  101 

between  the  Arabian  and  the  Italian  gamut ;  and  it 
is  highly  probable  that  the  terms,  sol,  fa,  ut,  &;c.  used 
in  the  old  mode  of  teaching  music,  were  borrowed 
from  the  Moors  of  Spain.     To  the  Saracens  we  are 
indebted  for  the  invention  of  the  lute,  which  they 
accounted  the  most   beautiful  of  all  instruments. 
They  had  likewise  the  organ,  flute,  harp,  tabor,  and 
the  mandoline,  with  which  they  serenaded  their 
mistresses.     On  these  occasions,  not  only  the  words 
and  air  of  their  songs,  but  even  the  colour  of  their 
dress,  indicated  the  triumph  of  the  fortunate,  or  the 
despair  of  the  rejected  lover.     Black  and  yellow 
denoted  grief;  green  was  expressive  of  hope  ;  blue, 
of  jealousy ;  and  the  violet  or  flame-colour,  of  im- 
passioned love.     In  addition  to  the  musical  instru- 
ments just  mentioned,  a  recent  traveller  alleges  that 
the  bagpipe,  which  has  so  long  been  considered  na- 
tional among  the  Scottish  Highlanders,  was  unques- 
tionably of  Arabic  origin.*     Without  pretending  to 
decide  whether  it  be  a  native  of  Asia  or  Europe,  we 
may  remark  that,  in  the  two  countries,  there  is  a 
wonderful  similarity  both  in  the  shape  of  the  instru- 
ment and  in  the  mode  of  playing  it.     The  tube  is 
perforated  in  the  same  manner ;  the  bag  is  angular, 
and  pressed  with  the  arm.     The  gaspah  of  the  Arabs 
is  a  common  reed  open  at  both  ends,  like  the  Ger- 
man flute,  with  three  or  more  holes  in  the  side,  ac- 
cordins:  to  the  extent  of  the   musician's  abilities. 
The  tarr,  another  of  their  instruments  (the  tympanum 
of  the  ancients),  consists  of  a  thin  hoop  of  wood, 
with  a  skin  of  parchment  stretched  over  the  top  like 
a  sieve.     This  serves  for  bass  in  their  concerts,  and 
they  touch  it,  like  the  tambourine,  very  dexterously 
with  their  fingers,  knuckles,  or  palms.     Connected 
with  this  art  was  the  practice  of  employing  j/'on»-Zewr5, 
who  accompanied  with  their  instruments  the  recita- 
tions of  the  poets.     Dancing  was  a  favourite  amuse- 

*  Colonel  Johnson's  Overland  Journey. 
12 


102  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

ment  with  the  Spanish  Arabs ;  and  from  them  our 
ancestors  borrowed  the  morris-dance,  which  formed 
a  part  of  their  May-games.  To  the  diversions  of 
hunting,  hawking,  and  horsemanship,  they  were 
passionately  addicted. 

Of  all  the  sciences  cultivated  by  the  Arabs,  agri- 
culture is  that  in  which  they  made  the  greatest  pro- 
gress. No  civilized  nation  of  their  times  possessed 
a  code  of  husbandry  more  judicious  or  more  perfect. 
Many  of  their  learned  men  turned  their  attention  to 
this  subject,  Kutsami,  author  of  the  Nabathaean 
Agriculture,  Abu  Omar,  Abu  Abdallah,  Abu  Zacha- 
ria,  and  others,  afforded  to  their  countrymen  valuable 
instruction  in  the  different  branches  of  rural  econ- 
omy. From  these  treatises  it  appears  that  the 
Saracens  were  well  acquainted  with  the  nature  and 
properties  of  soils  and  manures ;  and  the  proper 
application  of  them  to  every  particular  species  of 
crops,  trees,  and  plants.  They  were  familiar  with 
the  rearing  and  management  of  cattle  ;  and  the  Eu- 
ropean horse  was  greatly  improved  by  a  mixture 
with  the  Arabian  breed.  They  had  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  climate,  and  possessed  the  happy  art 
of  appropriating,  in  their  various  productions,  the 
different  soils  to  that  kind  of  culture  best  adapted  to 
them.  Great  care  and  skill  were  also  bestowed  on 
the  formation  of  gardens,  and  the  choice  and  ar- 
rangement of  plants ;  and  by  this  means  many  valu- 
able exotics  were  naturalized.  Besides  rice,  olives, 
oranges,  and  the  sugar-cane,  we  are  indebted  to  the 
Saracens  for  the  introduction  of  the  cotton-tree,  the 
pistachio,  ginger,  myrrh,  henna,  sesame,  saffron, 
spinach,  and  a  variety  of  fine  fruits  and  vegetables, 
now  considered  as  indigenous.  In  ornamental  gar- 
dening they  took  great  delight ;  studying  the  grati- 
fication of  the  eye  as  well  as  of  the  palate.  Flowers 
and  fountains  of  water  they  had  in  the  richest 
abundance.  A  monument  of  their  horticultural  taste 
still  remains  in  the  garden  of  the  Alcazar  at  Seville, 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  103 

which  is  preserved  in  its  original  state.  There  are 
walks  paved  with  marble,  and  so  contrived  that 
they  can  be  turned  into  continuous  fountains,  by 
forcing  up  small  jets  of  water  from  minute  pipes 
inserted  between  the  joining  of  the  slabs. 

In  metallurgy,  or  the  working  of  mines  and  me- 
tals, there  is  evidence  that  the  Arabs  had  arrived  at 
considerable  perfection.  Their  skill  in  the  different 
manufactures  of  hardware  was  remarkable,  and 
kno^vn  to  every  civilized  nation  in  the  world.  The 
blades  of  Mushraf  and  Damascus  were  not  more 
renowned  in  the  East  than  the  swords  of  Granada 
and  Toledo  in  the  West.  The  temper  of  the  Spa- 
nish arms  was  held  in  the  highest  repute  ;  that  coun- 
try being  the  arsenal  which  supplied  Europe  and 
Africa  with  cuirasses,  bucklers,  casques,  sciniitars, 
and  daggers.  The  celebrated  Alkendi,  among  his 
numerous  works,  produced  a  treatise  on  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  swords,  in  which  the  perfections  of  the 
metal  are  particularly  discussed ;  and  another,  on 
the  art  of  preparing  steel  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
edge  of  the  weapon  could  neither  be  broken  nor 
blunted.  Of  the  skill  of  the  Saracens  in  the  forma- 
tion of  porcelain,  some  exquisite  proofs  remain  in 
the  superb  vases  still  preserved  in  the  Alhambra, 
and  in  the  glazed  tiles  which  formed  a  distinguished 
ornament  of  their  palaces.  One  species  of  manu- 
facture in  which  they  pre-eminently  excelled  was 
that  of  tanning,  currying,  and  dying  leather ;  which, 
though  almost  lost  in  Spain  by  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors,  was  transferred  to  Fez,  where  great  numbers 
of  them  settled.  The  skins  were  stained  with  green, 
blue,  or  scarlet,  of  the  liveliest  tints,  for  which  a 
peculiar  sort  of  woad  was  used,  and  then  finished 
with  such  a  degree  of  brilliancy  as  to  resemble  var- 
nish. The  art  was  afterward  carried  to  England, 
where  the  terms  Morocco  and  Cordovan  are  still  ap- 
phed  to  leather  prepared  after  their  mode. 

Such  then,  was  the  state  of  perfection  to  which 


1 


104  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

literature,  science,  and  the  arts  were  carried,  and 
continued  to  flourish  from  the  ninth  to  the  four- 
teenth century  of  our  era,  in  those  vast  countries 
which  had  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  Islam.  The 
literary  apparatus  of  the  Saracens  was  splendid,  and 
their  progress  merits  all  the  eulogy  that  has  been 
bestowed  on  it.  Certain  prejudices,  however,  de- 
prived them  of  part  of  the  benefits  which  they  might 
have  reaped  from  a  familiar  intercourse  with  classic 
authors  ;-and,  as  has  been  remarked,  with  all  their 
enthusiasm  for  European  learning,  there  is  no  ex- 
ample of  a  poet,  an  orator,  or  even  an  historian  of 
Greece  and  Rome  being  translated  into  their  lan- 
guage.* 

Though  the  Saracens  cannot  claim  to  rank  high 
as  inventors  and  discoverers,  they  must  be  acknow- 
ledged as  the  restorers  of  letters  and  the  great  deposi- 
taries of  science.     Many  useful  treatises,  now  lost 
in  the  original,  were  preserved  in  their  language. 
Besides  some  of  the  commentaries  of  Galen  mid 
Hippocrates,  we  owe  to  this  cause  the  completion 
of  the  mathematical  works  of  Apollonius  Perggeus; 
part  of  ivhich,  in  Arabic,  was  discovered  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  the  Medicean 
Library,  and  part  among  the  Bodleian  Collection, 
of  which  a  Latin  version  was  given  by  the  Savilian 
professors,  Bernard  and  Halley.     It  is  unquestion- 
able that  a  great  number  of  the  inventions  which 
^at  the  present  day  add  to  the  comforts  of  life,  and 
'^without  which  literature  and  the  arts  could  never 
'have  flourished,  are  due  to  the  Arabs.     They  taught 
)  us  the  use  of  the  pendulum  in  the  measurement  of 
time  ;  and  also  of  the  telegraph,  though  not  with  all 
.  the  speed  and  efi'ect  of  modern  ipiprovement.     The 
[  manufacture  of  silk  and  cotton  was  brought  by  them 

*  We  must  make  one  exception.  Erpenius  states,  that  in  the 
great  library  at  Fez,  which  contained  32,000  volumes,  there  was 
preserved  an  entire  copy  of  Livy  in  Arabic— iower,  deBiblioth. 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  105 

into  Spain,  as  was  probably  the  art  of  dying  black 
with  indigo.  They  introduced  the  use  of  camels 
and  carrier  pigeons  into  Sicily.  The  art  of  enam- 
elling steel,  the  system  of  a  national  police,  the 
principles  of  taxation,  and  the  benefits  of  public 
libraries,  were  all  derived  from  the  same  source. 
Rhyme,  a  pleasing  characteristic  of  modern  verse, 
though  some  have  assigned  to  it  a  Gothic  origin, 
was  doubtless  borrowed  from  the  Saracens  by  the 
troubadours  and  Proven9al  bards,  w^ho  derived 
from  the  same  source  the  sentiment  of  honour, 
the  mysticism  of  love,  and  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  so 
copiously  infused  into  our  early  romances.  Even 
Descartes,  as  Huet  has  asserted,  was  indebted  to 
them  for  his  celebrated  metaphysical  principle, 
Cogito,  ergo  sum.  To  them  also  belongs  the  honour 
of  making  us  acquainted  with  the  manufacture  and  I 
use  of  paper.  This  invaluable  commodity,  it  is  true, 
had  from  a  very  remote  period  been  made  in  China 
from  the  refuse  of  silk,  bamboo,  and  other  sub- 
stances. About  the  year  649  the  invention  was 
introduced  at  Samarcand  by  the  Tartars,  who  used 
cotton  instead  of  silk ;  and  when  that  flourishing 
city  was  subdued  by  the  Moslems,  the  process  was 
conveyed  to  Mecca,  by  Yussuf  Amru  (A.  D.  706), 
where  paper  was  made  similar  to  that  now  manu- 
factured, though  it  does  not  appear  to  have  come 
immediately  into  general  use.  From  Mecca,  the 
art  spread  through  all  the  Arabian  dominions.  In 
Spain,  which  was  renowned  for  this  article  from  the 
twelfth  century  downwards,  flax,  which  grew  there 
abundantly,  was  substituted  for  cotton,  the  latter 
being  scarce  and  dear.  Alphonso  X.  established 
paper-mills,  and  his  example  passed  successively 
into  France,  Germany,  and  England. 

Gunpowder,  the  discovery  of  which  is  generally  ^ 
attributed  to   Schwartz,  a   German    chymist,  was   , 
known  to  the  Arabs  at  least  a  century  before  any 
traces  of  it  appear  in  European  history.     Though  it 


106  LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

is  probable  they  may  have  derived  their  knowledge 
I  of  this  composition  from  the  Indians,  they  certainly 
''y  improved  its  preparation,  and  found  out  different 
ways  of  employing  it  in  war.  The  mariner's  com- 
pass has  been  alternately  given  to  the  Italians  and 
the  French;  but  Tiraboschi,  notwithstanding  his 
partiality  for  his  country,  is  decidedly  of  opinion 
that  the  honour  of  its  invention  is  due  to  the  Arabs. 
Its  adoption  in  Europe  is  not  older  than  the  thir- 
teenth centmy,  while  among  the  Arabs  it  was 
known  in  the  eleventh.  The  polarity  of  the  magnet 
is  alleged  to  have  been  known  to  Aristotle  ;  and 
something  like  the  compass  was  in  use  among  the 
Chinese ;  but  as  the  Saracens  paid  considerable 
attention  to  navigation,  and  often  undertook  long 
and  laborious  voyages,  history  has,  with  much 
probability,  assigned  to  them  the  discovery  of  the 
magnetic  needle. 

Some  writers  have  offered  a  conjecture  that  this 
singular  people  paved  the  v/ay  for  our  immortal 
Nev/ton  towards  discovering  the  doctrine  of  attrac- 
tion ;  but  as  the  astronomical  treatises  of  the  famous 
mathematician  Mohammed  ibn  Musa,  upon  which 
this  supposition  is  founded,  are  not  extant,  the  hon- 
our of  the  English  philosopher  remains  unimpaired. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  wdien  the  historians  of 
the  middle  ages  mention  most  of  these  inventions 
for  the  first  time,  they  treat  them,  not  as  novelties, 
but  as  things  in  general  use  ;  hence  the  presumption 
is,  that  they  were  all  gradually  imported  by  obscure 
individuals,  and  not  by  men  of  genius ;  and  that 
however  much  they  may  have  altered  our  system  of 
war,  commerce,  science,  and  education,  they  were 
brought  by  a  people  familiar  with  their  practice,  and 
from  a  country  where  they  were  already  universally 
known.  But  whatever  may  be  the  claims  of  the 
Saracens  to  the  praise  of  original  genius,  they  formed 
the  link  which  unites  ancient  and  modern'  letters. 
Their  schools  and  academies  were  the  shrines  at 


LITERATURE    OF    THE    ARABS.  107 

which  the  barbarized  nations  of  the  West  rekindled 
the  torch  of  science  and  philosophy ;  and  thus  the 
ravages  occasioned  by  their  wars  were,  in  some 
degree,  expiated  by  their  scattering  the  germs  of 
social  and  intellectual  improvement  over  the  wide 
regions  which  they  successively  occupied.  In  the 
colleges  of  Cordova,  Seville,  and  Toledo,  the  scho- 
lars of  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  England  drank 
from  the  copious  fountain  of  Arabian  literature. 
Among  the  number  of  their  distinguished  students 
were  Adelard,  a  monk  of  Bath,  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, Morley,  a  native  of  Norfolk,  and  our  country- 
man, the  celebrated  Michael  Scott,  who  is  only 
known  in  Scotland  by  his  reputation  as  a  wizard. 

By  the  command  of  Charlemagne,  the  principal 
Arabic  books  were  translated  into  Latin,  for  the  use 
of  the  people  in  the  various  provinces  of  his  empire. 
For  several  centuries  medicine  found  a  secure  re- 
treat at  Salerno  and  Montpellier,  whither  students 
flocked  from  all  quarters  of  Europe,  and  where  the 
Christians  became  acquainted  with  the  works  of 
Galen  and  Hippocrates,  Even  the  Greeks  and  Jews 
did  not  disdain  to  learn  the  healing  art  from  the 
Saracens,  many  of  whom  were  induced  by  the 
liberality  of  Alphonso  X.  to  settle  at  Toledo,  The 
Arabian  arithmetic,  introduced  by  Gerbert,  was  im- 
proved by  Leonardo,  a  merchant  of  Pisa,  who  learned 
the  art  during  his  residence  at  Algiers,  about  the 
commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century ;  and  to 
thai  commercial  republic  may  be  attributed  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  first  among  the  Christian  states 
of  the  West  which  employed  this  system  of  nota- 
tion. In  short,  without  exaggerating  the  labours  of 
the  Arabs,  it  may  be  said  that  we  are  indebted  to 
them,  not  only  for  the  revival  of  the  exact  and  phy- 
sical sciences,  but  for  most  of  those  useful  arts  and 
inventions  that  have  wrought  so  total  a  change,  and 
given  so  beneficial  an  impulse  to  the  literature  and 
civilization  of  Europe. 

It 


\\ 


108  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CIVIL   HISTORY    AND    GOVERNMENT    OF   ARABIA. 

Extinction  of  the  Saracen  Power— Formation  of  new  Kingdoms 
in  the  East— Victories  and  Dominions  of  Timur— Conquests 
of  the  Turks  and  Portuguese  in  Arabia— Selim  I.  obtains  the 
Investiture  of  the  CaUphate — Expulsion  of  the  Turks  by  the 
Independent  Arab  Chiefs— Dominions  of  the  Imam  of  Sanaa 
— His  Government,  Revenues,  and  Military  Force — Descrip 
tion  of  Sanaa— Visits  of  European  Travellers  to  that  Capital 
— Principal  Town  in  Yemen— Beit  el  Fakih — Taas— Mocha 
— Aden — Government  of  Hadramaut — Of  Oman — Description 
of  Muscat — Court,  Revenues,  and  Commercial  Enterprise  of 
the  Imam— Islands  of  Bahrein — Pearl  Fisheries — Depreda- 
tions of  the  Joassamee  Pirates  in  the  Persian  Gulf— Various 
Expeditions  from  India  to  suppress  them — Reduction  of  Ras 
el  Khyma  and  their  principal  Fortresses — Arab  Settlers  on 
the  Persian  Frontier — Classification  of  the  wandering  Be- 
douin Tribes — Their  migratory  Habits  and  Military  Strength 
— Government  of  their  Sheiks — Their  Laws  and  Judicial 
Trials — Reflections  on  their  Political  Institutions. 

The  history  of  the  Saracens,  both  as  a  military  and 
a  political  nation,  may  be  said  to  have  expired  with 
the  reduction  of  Bagdad  by  the  grandson  of  Zingis 
Khan.  The  successors  of  Mostasem,  to  the  number 
of  eighteen,  called  the  Second  Dynasty  of  the  Ab- 
bassides,  were  merely  the  spiritual  chiefs  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan religion.  For  two  centuries  and  a  half 
the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  continued  in  the  hands 
of  these  venerable  phantoms ;  when  at  length  the 
tide  of  invasion  swept  away  the  only  remaining 
vestige,  and  feeble  representative,  of  the  once  proud 
caliphs  of  the  East.  Long  before  the  downfall  of 
the  Abbassides,  Arabia  had  shared  in  the  declining 
fortunes  of  its  masters.  Instead  of  being  the  seat 
of  the  successors  of  the  Prophet,  or  the  centre  of 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  109 

B  mighty  empire,  it  had  dwindled  into  the  condi* 
tion  of  a  province  ;  where,  except  in  the  charactef 
of  pontiff,  the  power  of  the  sovereign  was  httle  re^ 
garded.   Amid  the  distractions  of  foreign  wars  many- 
chiefs  of  the  interior  shook  off  their  precarious  alle- 
giance, and  resumed  their  ancient  habits  of  inde- 
pendence.    Only  the  coast  and  the  principal  cities 
acknowledged  the  yoke  of  the  neighbouring  mon- 
archs ;   and  during  the   hostilities    which  for  300 
years  desolated  the  continent  of  Asia,  the  Arabs 
mingled  with  the  auxiliary  bands  that  swelled  the 
ranks  of  the  Egyptians  and  Persians  in  their  san-» 
guinary  campaigns  against  the  Turks  and  Tartars. 
In  the  West,  their  unwieldy  empire,  despoiled  of 
Spain,  Africa,  and  the  Mediterranean  islands,  had 
shrunk  within  its  original  boundary,  the  Red  Sea,' 
but  their  power  was  not  increased  by  the  dismem* 
berment  of  these  remote  provinces.       The  com* 
manders  of  the  faithful  had  been  stripped  of  miich  val* 
uable  territory  in  Asia  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghizni  and  his 
successors,  the  founders  of  the  Mohammedan  powei* 
in  India.     The  race  of  the  Gaurides  and  the  Afghans, 
Who  had  supplanted  the  descendants  of  that  warlike 
sultan  (A.  D.  1160),  and  extended  the  dominions  and 
the  faith  of  Islam  from  Delhi  and  Lahore  to  the  dis- 
tant extremity  of  the  vast  province  of  Bengal,  yielded 
in  their  turn  to  the  swords  of  the  Moguls  (A.  D.1413)| 
Who,  from  being  the  conquerors,  became  the  sove- 
reigns of  that  peninsula.     Persia,  whose  jewelled 
sceptre  had  fallen  from  the  nerveless  grasp  of  the 
despicable  successors  of  Omar  and  AU,  was  long  a 
prey  to  every  daring  adventurer  who  had  the  courage 
to  seize  it.    For  a  hundred  years  it  was  ruled  by 
Hoolaku  and  his  descendants,  whose  fortunes  may 
be  said  to  have  ended  with  the  weak  and  indolent 
Abu  Seyd  (A.  D.  1356) ;  for  the  few  princes  that  sue-' 
ceeded  him  were  mere  pageants,  whom  the  nobles 
of  the  court  elevated  or  cast  down  as  suited  the 
purposes  of  their  ambition.     From  an  obscure  ad' 
Vol.  II.— K 


^rO"  CIVIL   HISTORY     AND 

venturer,  Ismael,  at  the  age  of  eig-hteen,  became^ 
sole  monarch  of  the  country  (A.  D.  1502),  and  founder 
of  the  Suffavean  dynasty,  which  continued  to  hold 
the  reins  of  government  till  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century. 

The  empire  of  the  great  Zingis,  which  had  de- 
stroyed and  superseded  the  temporal  power  of  the 
caliphs,  was  itself  doomed  to  experience  the  same 
fate  from  the  fierce  Tartars,  who,  bursting  in  swarms 
from  their  immeasurable  steppes,  and  rolling  on- 
ward like  a  resistless  torrent,  overthrew  in  one 
common  ruin  the  thrones  of  the  principal  dynasties 
of  the  East,  The  renowned  Timur,  or  Tamerlane, 
who  as  chief  of  one  of  these  tribes  had  ascended 
the  throne  of  Zagatai  in  1370,  was  the  leader  of 
those  barbarous  invaders.  A  fertile  kingdom  of 
500  miles  in  length  and  as  many  in  breadth  might 
have  satisfied  a  man  of  ordinary  ambition  ;  but  this 
Alexander  of  the  Desert  aspired  to  the  conquest 
and  monarchy  of  the  Avhole  world :  and  before  his 
death  he  had  the  rare  fortune  to  place  twenty-seven 
crowns  on  his  head.  With  an  army  occupying  a 
space  of  thirteen  miles  from  wing  to  wing  he  left 
his  capital  of  Samarcand.  The  hostile  nations 
yielded  in  succession  to  his  arms,  and  his  name 
was  pronounced  with  terror  from  the  Ganges  to 
the  distant  wilds  of  Siberia.  Penetrating  to  the 
"  regions  of  perpetual  daylight,"  he  made  himself 
master  of  the  Russian  capital  of  Moscow;  where 
the  astonished  Moslems  found  themselves  for  the 
first  time  relieved  from  the  obligations  of  evening 
prayer.  Everywhere  his  course  was  tracked  by 
desolation  and  blood.  At  Ispahan,  Bagdad,  and  two 
other  places  on  the  road  to  Delhi,  pyramids  of  human 
sculls,  amounting  to  70,000,  90,000,  and  100,000 
respectively,  were  raised  as  the  barbarous  monu- 
ments of  his  triumphs.  The  battle  of  Angora  (A.  D. 
1402)  has  immortalized  the  glory  of  Timur  and  the 
defeat  of  his  rival  Bajazet,  the  fourth  of  the  Ottomas^ 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  '    111 

emirs,  who  gratified  the  pride  and  vengeance  of  his 
conqueror  in  the  captivity  of  an  iron  cage.  This 
decisive  victory  cost  the  Uvcs  of  about  200,000  Turks 
and  nearly  as  many  Tartars.  The  dominions  of  this 
wonderful  man  were  inferior  in  extent  only  to  those 
of  the  Saracens  in  the  zenith  of  their  power. 

The  star  of  Timur  rose  and  set  amid  scenes  of 
carnage  ;  and  his  race,  as  well  as  his  empire,  might 
have  become  extinct,  had  not  Baber,  the  grandson 
of  Abu  Seyd  already  mentioned,  after  a  long  and 
noble  struggle  against  the  Uzbeck  Tartars,  the  ene- 
mies and  subverters  of  his  family,  retired  to  India, 
where  his  great  talents  obtained 'for  him  one  of  the 
most  splendid  thrones  in  the  world.  This  sultan  was 
the  first  that  received  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Hin- 
dostan,  and  Avith  him  commenced  (A.  D.  1526)  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Great  Mogul  in  that  peninsula, 
which  flourished  till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  it  received  its  death-blow  in  the  fall 
of  Aurengzebe  (A.  D.  1707),— a  prince  who  raised  it 
to  the  zenith  of  its  glory,  and  whose  sway  extended 
over  a  region  containing  64,000,000  inhabitants. 
His  successors  have  in  their  turn  vanished  from  the 
scene ;  and  their  richest  kingdoms  are  now  pos- 
sessed by  a  company  of  British  merchants. 

Though  the  Turkish  sultans  could  not,  like  the 
Arabian  cahphs,  style  themselves  the  descendants 
and  successors  of  the  apostle  of  God,  they  piously 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  Koran ;  and,  like  the  Sa- 
racens, affected  to  wage  war  only  for  the  interest* 
of  Islam.  Selim  I.,  after  reducing  the  whole  penin- 
sula of  Mesopotamia,  made  himself  master,  in  1516, 
of  Syria  and  Eg>^pt.  The  Arabs  alone  refused  him 
their  obedience.  Since  the  ruin  of  the  caliphate, 
they  had  in  a  great  measure  shaken  off  the  foreign 
authorities  to  which  they  had  been  partly  subject. 
The  neighbouring  powers,  too  much  engrossed  with 
their  own  quarrels,  had  never  attempted  their  sub- 
jugation ;  till  the  Portuguese,  under  Gama,  made 
their  appearance  in  the  Red  Sea  (A.  D.  1504). 


12  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

Instigated  by  the  fanatical  ambition  of  founding- 
an  Eastern  empire,  the  King  of  Portugal  had 
assumed,  among  other  magnificent  titles,  that  of 
*'  Lord  of  the  Navigation,  Conquest,  and  Commerce 
of  Arabia;"  and  commenced  the  exercise  of  his 
prerogative  by  capturing  a  Moorish  vessel,  the  crew 
of  which  were  treated  in  the  most  savage  manner. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  dif- 
ferent expeditions  from  Lisbon  visited  the  Arabian 
eoast,  Alphonso  Albuquerque,  in  1506,  reduced 
Curiat,  Muscat,  and  other  important  cities  on  both 
sides  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Gauri,  the  last  of  the 
Mamlouk  sultans  of  Egypt,  before  his  overthrow 
by  Selim,  desirous  to  rid  his  neighbourhood  of 
these  troublesome  adventurers,  fitted  out  an  expc' 
dition,  and  seized  most  of  the  ports  on  the  Red 
Sea.  But  on  the  extinction  of  that  dynasty  the 
greater  part  of  these  cities  fell  again  into  the  hands 
of  their  European  masters.  The  Ottomans,  in  order 
to  secure  the  possession  of  Egypt,  and  restore  to  its 
ports  the  lucrative  trade  of  the  East,  found  it  ne,. 
cessary  to  continue  the  war  against  the  Portuguese 
in  co-operation  with  the  sultans  of  India.  Solyman 
Pasha,  the  governor  of  Cairo,  was  ordered  by  Selim 
to  equip  at  Suez  a  fleet  of  seventy  galleys,  manned 
by  7000  of  the  best  Turkish  soldiers.  With  this 
powerful  armament  he  recovered  all  the  towns  on 
the  Arabian  Gulf  as  far  as  Aden. 

Another  circumstance  tended  to  confirm  the  do- 
minion of  Selim  over  Arabia.  One  of  the  descend-, 
ants  of  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad  (Mohammed  XL),  on 
the  ruin  of  that  capital  by  the  Moguls,  had  fled  to 
Egypt ;  and  being  the  last  of  the  sacred  race,  his 
family  were  treated  with  all  the  respect  due  to  the 
successor  of  the  successors  of  the  Prophet.  A  scion 
of  this  fallen  trunk  of  the  Abbassides  was  found 
by  Selim  at  Cairo  in  1517,  and  conducted  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  maintained  him  at  his  own 
expense,  and  at  his  demise  received  from  him  the 
formal  renunciation  of  the  caliphate.    In  this  emptv 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  113 

title  the  Turkish  sovereign  obtained  a  distinction, 
which  secured  to  him  and  his  descendants  the 
veneration  of  all  Mussulmans  of  the  Sonnee  sect. 
The  posterity  of  this  last  of  the  caliphs  have  sunk 
to  the  level  of  subjects  ;  but  the  spiritual  influence 
and  supremacy  derived  from  this  investiture  is  by 
no  means  a  barren  privilege,  even  to  the  present 
occupant  of  the  Turkish  throne.  Partly  by  gifts, 
and  partly  by  intimidation,  Selim  allured  many 
of  the  Arabian  chiefs  and  commanders  to  his  al- 
legiance. Even  the  Sheriff  of  Mecca  delivered  to 
him  the  keys  of  the  sacred  city,  and  openly  acknovi^- 
ledged  his  sovereignty.  By  the  influence  of  this 
venerated  personage,  many  of  the  wandering  tribes 
of  the  Desert  were  induced  voluntarily  to  submit 
to  his  authority,  and  to  deliver  hostages  for  their 
future  obedience.  From  this  circumstance,  and 
from  this  period,  may  be  traced  the  duty  which  has 
been  annually  performed  by  the  Turkish  sultans, 
as  commanders  of  the  faithful,  of  conducting  the 
zealous  Moslems  on  their  pilgrimage  to  the  sacred 
territory, — a  privilege  which  was  henceforth  dele- 
gated to  the  Pasha  of  Damascus,  and  to  whom  it 
still  belongs. 

The  conquests  of  Selim  left  his  son,  Solyman  I., 
little  to  achieve  in  Asia,  except  to  preserve  and  con- 
solidate the  vast  empire  which  he  had  acquired.  In 
Arabia  this  sultan,  who  appears  to  have  carried  the^ 
Ottoman  name  to  the  highest  pitch  of  glory,  em- 
ployed his  arms  with  great  success.  From  Suez  to 
Aden  the  whole  coasts  acknowledged  his  power. 
Penetrating  inland,  he  obtained  possession  of  Yemen, 
and  even  carried  his  victories  into  some  of  the 
mountainous  regions  beyond  its  northern  frontier ; 
so  that  the  peninsvila  became  almost  entirely  an 
appendage  of  the  Turkish  empire,  governed  by 
pashas  or  beglerbegs  appointed  by  the  Porte. 

The  reigns  of  Achmet  II.  and  Mustapha  II.  (A.  D. 
1696)  were  disturbed  by  revolts  of  the  Arab  tribes, 

K2 


i  14  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

who  plundered  and  impeded  the  pilgi-ims  on  their 
>'Oute,  and  even  made  the  Khan  of  the  Tartars 
himself  their  prisoner.  The  former,  unable  to  con- 
quer, was  glad  to  compound  with  the  sheiks  of  the 
Desert ;  while  the  latter,  through  the  bravery  of 
Arslan,  the  Pasha  of  Tripoli,  defeated  the  free' 
hooters,  and  upheld  the  authority  of  the  Turkish 
emperor  as  protector  of  the  sacred  territory.  Nadir 
Shah  made  an  attempt  to  subdue  the  Arabs  who 
constantly  infested  his  frontier;  and,  in  the  pro^ 
secution  of  this  object,  had  at  an  immense  expense 
equipped  a  fleet  of  twenty-five  sail  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  But  the  success  of  the  expedition  was  frus- 
trated  by  religious  animosities ;  for  the  sailors, 
being  Indians,  who  were  Sonnees,  refused  to  fight 
against  their  brethren  of  the  same  orthodox  faith ; 
and  after  massacring  their  Sheah  oflicers  they 
carried  off  the  ships.  Another  of  his  schemes  was 
to  transport  these  troublesome  neighbours  to  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  settle  a  colony  of 
Persians  in  their  room ;  but  his  tragical  death, 
in  1747,  prevented  the  execution  of  this  project. 

The  precarious  authority  of  the  Turks  received 
frequent  shocks  from  the  independent  princes  and 
sheiks  in  the  interior,  who  had  never  been  sub' 
dued.  So  early  as  1630  they  were  expelled  from 
Yemen,  where  their  name  and  their  government 
were  alike  odious,  and  obliged  to  evacuate  all  the 
1  places  on  the  coasts,  which  they  had  occupied  for 
more  than  a  century.  The  sultans  style  themselves 
sovereigns  of  Hejaz ;  but  their  sole  title  to  this 
distinction  consists  in  a  few  slender  prerogatives, 
which  may  now  be  considered  as  nearly  annihi- 
lated. As  lord-paramount,  the  grand  seignior  can 
appoint  or  depose  a  governor,  though  lie  dare  not 
always  venture  to  punish  a  rebel.  The  revenues 
which  he  draws  from  this  capricious  province  are 
proportionate  to  his  diminished  authority,  being 
limited  to  a  few  trifling  dues  at  certain  ports.  These 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  115 

are,  however,  more  than  counterbalanced  by  his  ex- 
penditure in  pensions,  grants,  and  pious  foundations 
estabhshed  at  the  different  sacred  places. 

Except  under  the  reigiis  of  the  warlike  caliphs, 
the  same  primitive  and  simple  form  of  government 
may  be  said  to  have  subsisted  in  Arabia  from  the 
most  remote  period  of  its  history.  Among  the 
modern  Bedouins  it  remains  in  all  its  purity;  in 
other  parts  it  has  undergone  some  changes,  without, 
however,  being  materially  altered.  The  whole  pe- 
ninsula is  divided  unequally  among  a  vast  number 
of  petty  sovereigns,  under  different  titles,  and  ex- 
ercising various  degrees  of  authority ;  bearing  a 
strong  analogy  to  those  social  arrangements  which 
appear  to  have  prevailed  in  Europe  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  more  recently  among  the  Highland  clans 
of  Scotland ;  except  only  that  the  inferior  chiefs 
have  seldom  been  in  a  state  of  vassalage,  and  never 
knew  the  feudal  government.  In  the  fertile  and 
civilized  districts,  monarchies  more  or  less  exten- 
sive have  been  formed,  either  by  conquest  or  by  re- 
ligious prejudices. 

Among  the  most  considerable  of  the  Arabian 
princes  is  the  imam,  who  resides  at  Sanaa,  and  who 
may  be  styled  King  of  Yemen,  as  his  dominions  ex- 
tend over  the  greater  part  of  that  large  and  fertile 
province.  The  elevation  of  this  royal  family  is 
coeval  with  the  expulsion  of  the  Tui'ks  in  1630, — 
a  revolution  which  was  achieved  by  their  ancestor 
the  famous  Khassem,  who  traced  his  descent  from 
the  Prophet.  It  was  while  residing  privately  ov 
his  patrimonial  inheritance,  on  the  mountains  nei 
Loheia,  that  with  the  aid  of  the  neighbouring 
sheiks  he  freed  his  country  from  the  odious  swa) 
of  the  Ottoman  pashas.  Raised  thus  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  sovereign,  he  assumed  the  modest  title 
of  sejid,  or  lord  ;  but,  after  his  death,  the  gratitude 
of  the  nation  bestowed  on  him  the  epithet  of  The 
Great. 


116  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

His  son  Ismael  adopted  the  title  of  imam  :  he  was 
so  economical  that  he  made  and  sold  bonnets  for 
his  livelihood,  to  save  the  public  revenue,  and  re- 
stricted his  household  to  one  wife  and  a  female 
slave.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  thirty  years,  and 
was  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  both  for  his  talents 
and  his  piety.  His  descendants,  to  the  number  of 
eleven  in  succession,  had  filled  the  throne  at  the 
time  when  the  traveller  Niebuhr  visited  that  coun- 
try. The  interval  had  been  signalized  by  the  con- 
tests of  various  pretenders  to  the  crown,  chiefly  of 
the  reigning  family.  The  imam  Mahadi,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1746,  had  some  formidable 
adversaries  to  oppose,  particularly  the  heroic  Ab- 
durrab,  governor  of  the  small  province  of  Hosjerie, 
who  proclaimed  himself  an  independent  sheik. 
After  taking  possession  of  Kataba,  Taas,  and  other 
districts,  on  which  he  levied  heaiy  contributions, 
the  imam  was  obliged  to  conclude  a  peace  with 
him. 

Though  the  throne  of  Yemen  is  hereditary,  and 
devolves,  if  generally  approved  by  the  subjects,  on 
the  eldest  legitimate  son,  yet  the  rightful  succes- 
sion is  often  violated.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  imam 
in  ecclesiastical  matters,  though  absolute  among  his 
own  subjects,  extends  not  over  the  dominions  of 
other  sovereigns  of  the  same  sect,  who  employ  a 
mufti  or  cadi  as  their  spiritual  ruler.  In  the  exer- 
cise of  his  prerogative  he  is  controlled  by  the  su- 
preme tribunal  of  Sanaa,  of  which  he  is  only  presi- 
dent, and  which  consists  of  a  certain  number  of 
cadis,  possessing  the  sole  power  of  life  and  death. 
These  assessors,  generally  persons  of  incorruptible 
integrity,  are  nominated  by  the  sovereign,  and  re- 
movable at  his  pleasure — a  circumstance  which,  if 
he  is  disposed  to  abuse  his  authority,  puts  it  in  his 
power  to  extort  their  suffrages  by  threatening  them 
with  disgrace  ;  but  this  extreme  measure  is  seldom 
resorted  to.    The  public  offices  at  court  are  numer- 


GOVERNMENT   OF    ARABIA.  117 

ous,  but  titles  of  honour  are  few.  The  first  minister 
is  simply  styled  fakih — an  appellation  so  vague  as 
to  include  all  holding  place  or  employment  who  are 
in  any  degree  above  the  vulgar.  Every  petty  dis- 
trict has  its  governor,  who,  if  not  of  princely  or 
noble  birth,  is  called  walih  and  dowlah,  or  sometimes 
emir,  when  he  happens  to  be  of  low  extraction.  A 
dowlah  in  Yemen  resembles  a  pasha  in  Turkey, 
only  acting  in  a  more  restricted  sphere.  He  com- 
mands the  forces  in  his  province,  regulates  the  po- 
lice, and  collects  the  taxes.  They  are  all  obliged 
to  render  frequent  account  of  their  administration ; 
and  to  prevent  their  accumulating  too  much  wealth 
where  the  governments  are  lucrative,  they  are  re- 
called every  two  or  three  years.  When  guilty  of 
high  misdemeanors,  or  convicted  of  malversation, 
they  are  punished  by  imprisonment  or  confiscation, 
but  seldom  capitally.  Every  city  in  which  a  dowlah 
resides  has  likewise  a  cadi,  who  is  sole  judge  in 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  In  large  villages  the 
chief  is  a  sheik ;  and  in  every  little  town  a  sub-dow- 
lah  resides,  with  a  small  garrison  of  soldiers  to  pre- 
serve order.  The  emir  hahr  is  the  inspector  of  sea^ 
ports ;  and  in  the  inland  districts  the  sheik  el  belled 
is  the  officer  who  levies  taxes,  and  determines  what 
each  individual  must  pay.  Sales  and  markets  are 
regulated  by  their  own  emir ;  the  principal  gates  in 
cities  and  fortresses  are  intrusted  to  similar  ofiicers ; 
even  the  post  of  chief  jailer  and  watchman  is  hon- 
ourable, and  an  object  of  ambition.  Where  the 
governments  are  considerable,  the  dowlahs  are  at- 
tended by  a  bas-kateh,  or  comptroller,  whose  business 
it  is  to  keep  a  strict  eye  upon  their  conduct,  and 
acquaint  the  imam  with  the  general  state  of  affairs. 
This  spy,  by  his  misrepresentations,  often  supplants 
the  governor  ;  but  he  is  himself  placed  at  the  mercy 
of  another  bas-kateb,  and  shares  in  his  turn  the  fate 
of  his  predecessor. 
The  revenues  of  the  img,m  arise  both  from  a  land 


118  CIVIL    HISTORY    AXD 

and  a  poll  tax,  and  from  duties  payable  on  articles 
of  merchandise.  Coffee  affords  a  very  considerable 
income,  as  the  crown  is  entitled  to  receive  a  fourth 
part  of  the  selling  price  before  it  can  be  put  on  board 
ship  for  exportation.  The  different  departments 
vary  in  their  contributions  according  to  circum- 
stances. Niebuhr  learned  that  Mocha,  in  the  sum- 
mer season,  when  vessels  from  India  arrive  and  de- 
part, paid  7000  crowns  per  month — at  other  times 
only  4000 ;  Loheia  yielded  3000  crowns ;  Hodeida, 
1400;  Beit  el  Fakih,  3600;  and  Zebid  1400.*  It  is 
difficult  to  obtain  accurate  knowledge  either  of  the 
Tevenue  or  expenditure  of  the  Arabian  princes. 
Strangers  are  obliged  to  use  great  caution  in  putting 
questions  on  this  subject,  otherwise  their  curiosity 
may  cost  them  their  head.  Oraki,  a  Jew,  and  sur- 
veyor-general of  buildings,  the  person  whom  the 
Danish  traveller  consulted,  estimated  the  income 
of  Mahadi  at  830,000  crowns,  or  188,306Z.,  a  month  ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  temporary  loss  of  Kataba, 
Aden,  Abu  Arish,  Taas,  and  some  other  provinces, 
it  was  reduced  nearly  one-half. 

The  military  force  of  Sanaa,  though  not  precisely 
known,  consisted,  according  to  Niebuhr,  of  about 
4000  infantry  and  1000  cavalry.  The  chief  com- 
mand of  the  army  was  intrusted  to  four  sheiks  ;  and 
under  them  were  many  nakibs,  or  officers  of  an  in- 
ferior class,  some  of  whom  had  been  raised  from  the 
condition  of  slaves.  Nakib  is  the  highest  title  that 
the  sovereign  can  confer,  that  of  sheik  being  hered- 
itary, and  peculiar  to  petty  princes  or  independent 
Arabs.  In  tinies  of  peace  the  military  are  employed 
as  state  pageants,  or  engaged  in  civil  occupations. 
The  cavalry  attend  the  imam  or  the  dowlah  to  the 
mosque,  wherever  their  head-quarters  may  happen 
to  be  ;  and,  after  conducting  their  master  home, 
they  exercise  themselves  in  arms  and  horsemanship, 

*  The  German  crown  is  equal  to  4s.  6^d.  nearly. 


GOVERNMENT   OF   ARABIA.  119 

which  they  perform  with  great  dexterity.  The  cav- 
alry have  no  uniform,  every  one  dressing  according 
to  his  own  fancy.  Their  arms  are  a  long  lance,  a 
sabre,  a  curved  dirk  stuck  in  their  girdle,  and  some- 
times a  pair  of  pistols  in  the  holsters  of  their  sad- 
dles. A  pair  of  boots  are  drawn  on  their  naked 
legs,  and  the  ends  of  their  turbans  flow  down  be- 
tween their  shoulders. 

The  infantry,  while  in  garrison,  have  little  else  to 
do  than  act  as  sentinels  or  foot-guards  to  the  dow- 
lah.  In  accompanying  him  to  the  mosque  they  use 
wild  and  grotesque  gestures,  flourishing  their  scimi- 
tars or  their  muskets  in  the  air,  and  singing  and 
leaping  like  men  insane  or  intoxicated — a  practice 
ivhich  is  supposed  to  have  some  reference  to  an 
ancient  usage  of  exciting  courage  when  marching 
to  battle.  Their  pay  Niebuhr  states  at  two  crowns 
and  a  half  per  month,  and  their  dress  is  as  irregular 
as  that  of  the  cavalry.  The  greater  number  wear 
nothing  but  apiece  of  short  linen  around  their  loins, 
and  over  that  is  a  girdle  in  which  their  curved  dag- 
ger is  fixed.  Their  heads  are  covered  M'ith  a  ker- 
chief or  a  cap  of  blue  linen  ;  and  their  hair,  which  is 
long,  is  knotted  or  folded  up  into  a  kind  of  bag.  A 
buckler,  sabre,  and  lance  are  their  ordinary  arms ; 
and  they  are  trained  in  the  use  of  musketry.  They 
have  a  singular  method  of  displaying  their  courage 
and  fidelity  in  battle,  resembling  that  of  the  soldurit 
among  the  Romans.  A  soldier  willing  to  evince 
his  devoted  attachment  to  his  chief  binds  up. his 
leg  to  his  thigh,  and  continues  to  fight  until  the 
enemy  are  routed,  or  himself  cut  to  pieces.  The 
marine  of  Yemen  is  on  a  very  limited  scale,  a  naval 
force  being  unnecessary,  as  there  is  little  to  dread 
from  enemies  or  corsairs. 

Sanaa,  the  capital  of  the  imam,  stands  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Nikkum.  Abulfeda  describes  it  as  being 
the  largest  city  in  Yemen,  and  resembling  Damas- 
cus for  the  multitude  of  its  waters  and  orchards  y 


120  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 

but  the  wealth  and  populousness  which  it  enjoyed 
under  the  Hamyarite  kings  no  longer  exist.  Nie- 
buhr,  who  resided  in  it  for  a  short  time,  says  the  cir-^ 
cumference  is  not  more  than  an  hour's  walk ;  and 
the  inhabitants  are  not  so  numerous  as  this  extent 
might  lead  us  to  suppose^  a  considerable  part  of  the 
space  being  occupied  with  gardens.  The  walls  are 
constructed  of  earthy  faced  with  unburnt  brick,  and 
surmounted  by  a  great  many  small  turrets  ;  and  if 
we  can  believe  the  report  of  the  French  travellers 
Who  visited  Yemen  in  1712,  their  breadth  is  suffi- 
cient to  admit  of  driving  eight  horses  abreast.*  It 
has  seven  gates,  and  a  number  of  mosques,  some  of 
which  were  erected  by  the  Turkish  pashas.  The 
public  baths  are  only  twelve  ;  but  there  are  several 
noble  edifices  built  in  the  Arabian  style.  No  less 
than  three  palaces  were  erected  by  the  imam  Ma- 
hadi :  these  are  constructed  partly  of  brick,  and 
partly  of  hewn  stone  ;  but  they  must  not  be  judged, 
ill  point  of  elegance  or  accommodation,  by  the 
standard  of  European  taste.  Only  one  of  them 
could  boast  the  luxury  of  glass  windows,  though 
they  are  provided  with  extensive  gardens.  Some 
of  the  principal  inhabitants  have  in  their  country- 
houses  small  panes  of  stained  glass,  brought  fronl 
Venice.  In  the  city  the  windows  have  merely  shut- 
ters, which  are  closed  in  time  of  rain,  and  the  house 
is  then  lighted  by  a  round  wicket  fitted  with  a  piece 
of  Muscovy  glass. 

Here,  as  in  most  other  places  in  the  East,  there 
are  large  simseras  or  caravansaries  for  merchants 
and  travellers  ;  as  also  separate  bazars  for  wood^ 
coal,  iron,  grapes,  corn,  butter,  salt,  bread,  and  the 
bartering  of  old  clothes  for  new.  The  other  trades^ 
including  all  who  traffic  in  the  merchandise  of  India, 
Persia,  and  Turkey,  as  well  as  those  who  deal  in 
all  sorts  of  spices  and  drugs — the  fruiterers,  carpen- 

*  Voyage  de  1' Arable  Heureuse. 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  121 

ters,  smiths,  shoemakers,  saddlers,  tailors,  stone- 
cutters, goldsmiths,  barbers,  cooks,  and  writers  or 
scribes,  have  each  their  respective  stand  in  the  open 
street,  with  their  little  portable  shops.  Jews  are 
not  permitted  to  live  in  the  city ;  they  reside,  to  the 
number  of  about  2000,  in  a  village  in  the  suburbs. 
They  are  treated  with  great  contempt ;  yet  the  best 
artisans  in  Arabia  are  of  this  nation,  especially  pot- 
ters and  goldsmiths,  who  come  within  the  walls  by 
day  to  work  in  their  little  shops,  and  in  the  evening 
retire  to  their  own  habitations.  Many  of  them 
carry  on  a  very  considerable  trade,  and  are  occa- 
sionally advanced  to  places  of  trust.  Oraki  was  an 
eminent  merchant  before  he  was  made  by  the  imam 
comptroller  of  customs  and  surveyor  of  the  royal 
buildings  and  gardens.  He  had  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  master  shortly  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Danish  traveller,  and  his  disgrace  involved  his 
countrymen  in  a  severe  persecution.  Fourteen  of 
their  synagogues  were  demolished  by  order  of  the 
government ;  all  the  stone  pitchers  in  which  they 
kept  their  wine  were  broken ;  all  their  houses  above 
14  cubits  high  (25i  feet)  were  pulled  down,  and  none 
exceeding  that  height  w^ere  permitted  to  be  raised 
in  future. 

Fruits  are  very  abundant.  It  is  said  there  are 
more  than  twenty  different  species  of  grapes,  one 
of  which  is  without  stones  ;  and  as  they  do  not  all 
ripen  at  the  same  time,  they  continue  to  afford  a  de- 
licious refreshment  for  several  months.  By  pre- 
serving and  hanging  them  in  their  cellars  the  citi- 
zens secure  an  agreeable  food  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.  Vast  quantities  of  them  are  dried ;  and 
the  exportation  of  raisins  forms  a  considerable 
branch  of  traffic.  The  adjacent  plain  of  Rodda  is 
covered  with  gardens,  and  watered  by  small  streams. 
Timber  for  firewood  is  scarce  and  dear,  the  hills  in 
the  vicinity  being  bleak  and  bare  ;  so  that  this  article 
is  brought  from  the  distance  of  three  days'  journey, 

Vol,.  TI.— L 


122  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

and  a  camel's  load  costs  two  crowns.  There  is  a 
partial  supply  of  pit-coal,  and  even  peat  is  used,  but 
of  so  bad  a  quality  as  to  require  a  mixture  of  straw 
to  make  it  burn.  The  castle  contains  a  mint,  and  a 
series  of  prisons  for  persons  of  different  ranks.  It 
is  the  residence  of  several  princes  of  the  blood. 
The  battery  consisted,  when  Niebuhr  visited  it,  of 
seven  iron  cannons,  partly  buried  in  the  sand  and 
partly  mounted  upon  broken  carriages  ;  and  these, 
with  six  others  near  the  gates,  which  are  fired  on 
festival-days,  were  all  the  artillery  of  the  metropolis 
of  Yemen. 

The  first  Europeans  that  visited  the  court  of  Sa- 
naa were  the  deputation  of  a  company  of  French 
merchants  of  St.  Malo  engaged  in  the  coffee-trade, 
during  their  second  expedition  in  1711  and  the  two 
following  years.  The  residence  of  the  imams  was 
then  at  Mohaib  or  Mouab,  a  small  town  to  the  north 
of  Sanaa,  and  eight  days'  journey  from  Mocha.  It 
was  built  by  the  sovereign  then  on  the  throne,  Mo- 
hammed, who  was  involved  in  perpetual  wars ;  and 
appeared  remarkable  for  nothing  but  its  palace,  which 
consisted  of  two  large  wings  three  stories  high.  The 
walls  and  most  part  of  the  houses  were  of  mud. 

That  prince  is  described  as  an  old  man,  eighty- 
seven  years  of  age,  of  a  complexion  inclining  to 
tawny,  and  an  agreeable  aspect.     In  his  dress  he 
maintained  the  greatest  simplicity,  never  wearing 
any  other  habit  than  a  fine  cloth  of  a  green  or  yellow 
colour,  without  any  ornament.     His  legs  and  feet 
were  bare,  with  the  exception  of  slippers  after  the 
Turkish  fashion.     The  only  mark  of  distinction  was 
a  kind  of  veil  of  white  silk  over  his  turban,  which 
covered  his  head,  and,  falling  down  before,  was  tied 
under  his  chin  like  a  woman's  hood.     The  same 
plainness  and  modesty  of  attire  were  observed  in 
the  courtiers  and  other  officers  of  the  household. 
The  grandees  never  approached  him  without  taking 
hold  of  his  right  hand,  which  was  laid  upon  his 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  123 

knee,  and  kissing  it  with  the  most  profound  re- 
spect. 

The  only  thing  Uke  state  ceremony,  and  in  which 
the  simple  manners  of  the  court  were  laid  aside, 
occurred  when  his  majesty  went  to  the  mosque.  On 
these  occasions  there  was  a  splendid  military  pa- 
rade, including  infantry,  cavalry,  and  officers  of  the 
palace.  The  king  rode  a  beautiful  wliite  charger, 
which  nobody  else  was  permitted  to  mount.  By 
his  side  were  the  two  princes,  his  sons,  on  horses 
richly  caparisoned.  Over  his  head,  as  a  screen 
from  the  heat,  was  borne  a  large  parasol  or  canopy 
of  green  damask,  with  a  red  fringe  ornamented  with 
gold  tassels,  and  surmounted  by  a  globe  of  gilt  sil- 
ver. Immediately  before  the  royal  person  rode  an 
officer  carrying  the  Koran  in  a  bag  of  red  cloth ;  the 
sword-bearer  rode  behind.  During  the  march  of 
this  pageant,  tambours,  timbrels,  and  hautboys 
ceased  not  to  play ;  and,  to  swell  the  train,  they 
were  joined  by  fifty  led  horses  and  as  many  camels 
from  the  king's  stables  at  Damar,  which  had  sad- 
dles, bridles,  and  housings,  ornamented  with  gold 
and  silver,  with  a  battle-axe  suspended  on  the  one 
side,  and  a  beautiful  sabre  on  the  other.  The  heads 
of  the  camels  were  furnished  with  tall  plumes  of 
black  ostrich  feathers.  The  place  of  prayer  was  a 
pavilion  or  open  tent,  into  which  the  sovereign 
alone  entered,  the  spectators  performing  their  de- 
votions at  the  same  time,  and  imitating  the  imam  in 
the  various  motions  of  the  requisite  ceremonies. 

The  French  deputies  were  astonished  at  contrast- 
ing the  size  and  elegance  of  the  palace  with  the 
homeliness  of  its  furniture.  The  walls  were  merely 
hung  round  with  a  piece  of  printed  calico,  five  or  six 
feet  in  breadth  ;  and  its  only  accommodation  was  a 
sofa,  with  plain  cushions  and  carpets,  which  served 
the  purposes  of  chair,  table,  and  bed.  The  plains  in 
the  vicinity  were  sown  with  rice  and  wheat ;  Avhile 
nearly  all' "the  hills  and  valleys  were  covered  with 


124  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

vines,  coffee,  and  fruit  trees  of  every  description. 
The  royal  gardens  were  extensive,  but  presented 
nothing  particular,  except  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
shrubberies,  which  contained  specimens  of  all  the 
trees  known  in  the  kingdom.  The  harem  was  kept 
in  the  castle,  and  replenished  with  600  or  700  women. 
When  they  ventured  abroad,  their  ordinary  convey- 
ance was  on  the  backs  of  camels,  enclosed  in  a  sort 
of  cage  covered  with  scarlet  and  stuffed  with  cush- 
ions, on  which  they  sat  or  lolled  at  pleasure.  The 
only  entrance  into  this  sedan  was  by  a  small  open- 
ing before,  which  was  covered  with  a  curtain  or 
veil  of  fine  linen.  The  ladies  in  general  used  a  pro- 
fusion of  scents  and  odours ;  many  of  them  had  large 
gold  rings  suspended  from  the  end  of  their  nose, 
besides  bracelets  of  the  same  metal  on  their  arms, 
neck,  and  ankles. 

When  Niebuhr  visited  the  court  of  Yemen,  fifty 
years  afterward,  Mohaib  had  ceased  to  be  the  royal 
residence.  Damar  contained  about  5000  houses, 
with  a  dowlah,  and  a  university  attended  by  nearly 
500  students.  At  Sanaa  the  Danish  travellers  were 
conducted  to  the  royal  presence  by  the  secretary  of 
the  vizier.  The  court  of  the  palace  (the  Bustan  el 
Motakkel)  was  so  crowded  with  horses,  officers,  and 
servants,  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  the 
strangers  to  force  their  way,  had  not  the  principal 
equerry,  who  had  formerly  been  a  slave,  opened  a 
passage  through  the  crowd  with  the  aid  of  a  ponder- 
ous staff  in  his  hand.  The  hall  was  a  spacious 
square  chamber,  having  an  arched  roof,  lighted  from 
the  top.  In  the  centre  was  a  large  basin,  with  some 
jets  d'eau  rising  to  the  height  of  fourteen  feet.  Be- 
hind this  reservoir  was  a  platform  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  high,  and  five  feet  in  length.  On  this  was  set 
the  throne  slightly  elevated,  and  resembling  a  square 
pedestal  or  altar,  covered  with  silk  stuffs.  The  floor 
of  the  apartment  was  spread  with  Persian  carpets. 
The  imam  sat  half-buried  in  cushions,  with  his  legs 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  125 

across.  His  dress  was  a  bright  green  robe  with  full 
sleeves,  such  as  were  worn  by  the  caliphs.  On  each 
side  of  his  breast  was  a  rich  filleting  of  gold  lace, 
and  on  his  head  he  wore  a  white  turban  of  ample 
dimensions.  His  sons  sat  on  his  right-hand,  and 
his  brothers  on  his  left.  Opposite  to  them  was  the 
vizier,  Fakih  Achmed,  and  on  the  lower  elevation 
were  placed  the  European  visiters.  On  each  side  of 
the  hall  were  ranged  the  principal  grandees  and 
officers  of  the  court,  who  all  shouted,  "  God  save 
the  imam  !"  as  the  strangers  kissed  the  hem  of  the 
royal  robe. 

The  pompous  manner  of  going  to  mosque,  which 
is  described  by  the  French  travellers,  was  witnessed 
by  the  Danes.     The  better  to  display  his  magni- 
ficence, the  imam  usually  made  along  and  circuitous 
progress,  passing  out  by  one  gate  of  the  city  and 
entering  by  another ;  his  train,  after  prayers,  being 
joined  by  all  the  inhabitants  who  have  performed 
their  devotions.     A  large  body  of  soldiers  marched 
before  ;  and,  besides  the  princes  of  the  blood,  there 
were  in  the  procession  at  least  600  noblemen,  eccle- 
siastics,  civil  and  military    oflicers,   all    superbly 
dressed  and  mounted ;  the  rear  was  brought  up  by  a 
vast  concourse  of  people  on  foot,  and  by  a  number 
of  camels  in  pairs,  bearing  empty  sedans,  and  small 
flags  fixed  by  way  of  ornament  to  their  saddles.    On 
eacn  side  of  the  imam  was  borne  a  standard,  sur- 
mounted by  a  small  box  or  casket  of  silver  filled  with 
amulets,  whose  virtues  were   supposed  to  render 
him  invincible.     Various  other  banners  were  forti- 
fied with  similar  talismans.     The  same  rich  cano- 
pies, called  medallas,  were  extended  over  the  heads 
of  the  king  and  some  other  members  of  his  family ; 
these  being  a  distinction  peculiar  to  the  sovereign 
and  princes  of  the  blood,  and  claimed  by  the  sheiks, 
sheriffs,  and  nobility  in  other  parts  of  Yemen,  who 
constantly  display  this  mark  of  their  independence. 
Altogether,  the  cortege  was  magnificent  but  disor- 

L2 


126  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 

derly,  the  multitude  crossing  and  jostling  each  other. 
The  firing  of  the  military  was  awkward,  as  were 
their  evolutions  and  exercises  in  front  of  the  palace. 

After  their  audience  with  the  imam,  the  strangers 
paid  their  respects  to  Fakih  Achmed.  The  vizier's 
house  was  not  large,  and  on  one  side  entirely  open 
on  account  of  the  heat.  The  garden  was  stocked 
with  fruit  trees,  and  in  the  middle  was  a  jet  (Teau, 
wrought  by  an  odd  sort  of  hydraulic  machinery ; 
the  water  being  put  in  motion  by  means  of  an  ass 
and  a  man  alternately  mounting  and  descending  an. 
inclined  plane.  This  apparatus  was  less  for  orna- 
ment than  use  in  cooling  the  air,  and  was  common 
in  the  gardens  of  all  the  principal  inhabitants  of 
Sanaa. 

The  traveller  and  his  companions,  on  the  eve  of 
their  departure,  received  from  the  imam  each  a 
complete  suit  of  clothes,  with  a  letter  to  the  Dowlah 
of  Mocha,  desiring  him  to  pay  them  200  crowns  as 
a  farewell  present ;  while  the  secretary  had  orders 
to  furnish  camels  and  asses  for  the  whole  of  their 
journey,  besides  a  quantity  of  provisions.  The  dress 
Niebuhr  describes  as  being  exactly  like  that  worn 
by  the  Arabs  of  distinction  throughout  Yemen,  con- 
sisting of  a  shirt  over  wide  drawers  of  cotton  cloth, 
and  a  vest  with  straight  sleeves  covered  by  a  flow- 
ing gown.  The  turban  is  very  large,  falling  down 
between  the  shoulders.  The  jambea,  a  sort  of 
crooked  cutlass  or  dagger,  is  inserted  in  a  broad 
girdle,  and  to  the  handle  is  sometimes  attached  a 
kind  of  chaplet  or  rosary,  which  the  Mohammedans 
use  at  prayers. 

Since  the  visit  of  the  Danish  travellers  internal 
wars  and  political  revolutions  have  MTOUght  many 
changes  in  Yemen,  and  greatly  eclipsed  the  splen- 
dour of  that  ancient  monarchy.  About  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century,  Mr.  Pringle,  the 
British  resident  at  Mocha,  twice  visited  Sanaa,  which 
he  describes  as  a  handsome  town  surrounded  with 


An  Arab  of  Rank  in  the  Costume  of  Yemen, 


GOVERNMENT     OF    ARABIA.  129 

gardens.  The  palace  was  an  elegant  building ;  and 
at  court  a  considerable  degree  of  dignity  and  splen- 
dour was  maintained.  The  imam,  whom  Lord  Va- 
lentia  represents  as  a  person  about  78  years  old,  and 
fast  approaching  to  dotage,  was  still  endeavouring 
to  amuse  himself  in  his  harem  of  400  Abyssinian 
slaves ;  apparently  insensible  of  the  danger  that 
threatened  him  from  the  encroachments  of  the  Wa- 
habees.  His  family,  consisting  of  19  brothers  and 
24  sons  and  grandsons,  was  torn  by  domestic  quar- 
rels. The  whole  disposable  force  of  the  kingdom 
did  not  then  exceed  600  horse  and  3000  foot,  though 
it  is  reckoned  in  ordinary  times  at  1000  cavalry  and 
4000  infantry. 

The  dominions  of  this  prince  in  Niebuhr's  time 
were  subdivided  into  thirty  governments  or  prov- 
inces, of  which  the  Tehama  contained  six,  and  the 
inland  country  twenty-four.  These  petty  districts 
were  not  all  equally  populous  or  important,  and  to 
describe  them  in  detail  would  be  as  irksome  as  it  is 
superfluous.  The  territory  of  Loheia,  the  most  north- 
ern part  of  the  kingdom,  is  arid  and  barren.  The 
city  was  built  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and,  like  several  others  in  these  parts,  owed 
its  foundation  to  a  Mohammedan  saint,  whose  hut 
stood  near  the  shore,  where  a  town  gradually  accu- 
mulated round  his  tomb.  The  houses,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  stone  edifices,  are  mere  mud 
hovels  thatched  with  grass,  having  a  straw  mat  for 
a  door,  and  scarcely  any  windows.  The  harbour  is 
so  indifferent  that  even  the  smallest  vessels  are 
obliged  to  anchor  at  a  considerable  distance.  Its 
staple  trade  is  coffee,  of  which  annual  purchases  are 
made  by  merchants  from  Cairo  and  other  places. 

The  journey  to  Beit  el  Fakih  is  represented  as 
lying  generally  through  a  parched  and  barren  tract 
of  country.  The  only  accommodation  are  WTctched 
coff'ee-houses  intended  to  serve  the  purposes  of  our 
inns.     These  mokeias,  as  they  are  called,  are  paltry 


130  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

huts,  furnished  merely  with  a  sevir,  or  long  bench  of 
straw  ropes  ;  nor  do  they  afford  any  refreshment 
but  kischer,  a  hot  infusion  of  coffee-beans,  or  some- 
times millet-cakes  with  camel's  milk  and  butter. 
The  kischer  is  served  out  in  coarse  earthen  cups ; 
wheaten-bread  was  a  rarity  in  the  province,  and  the 
water  was  scarce  and  bad.  The  owner  or  master 
of  the  inn  generally  resides  in  some  neighbouring 
village,  whence  he  comes  daily  to  wait  for  passen- 
gers. Another  description  of  coffee-houses  is  the 
monsale,  where  travellers  are  received  and  enter- 
tained gratuitously,  if  they  will  be  content  with  the 
usual  fare  of  the  country.  The  guests  are  all  lodged 
in  one  common  apartment,  which  is  served  and 
furnished  in  the  same  homely  style  as  the  mokeias. 
The  city  of  Beit  el  Fakih  (or  House  of  the  Sage) 
derived  its  name  and  origin  from  a  famous  saint, 
Achmed  ibn  Mousa,  whose  sepulchre  is  shown  in  a 
handsome  mosque  near  the  touTi.  His  reputation 
for  miraculous  cures  was  as  celebrated  as  that  of 
any  martyr  or  confessor  in  the  Romish  calendar. 
One  of  his  most  wonderful  performances  was  the 
liberation  of  a  Turkish  pasha  who  had  been  for 
twenty  years  a  captive  in  Spain,  where  he  was  bound 
in  a  dungeon  to  two  huge  stones,  with  ponderous 
and  massy  chains.  Long  and  in  vain  had  he  invoked 
every  canonized  name  in  the  annals  of  Islam ;  but 
when  the  aid  of  Achmed  was  solicited,  the  compas- 
sionate saint  stretched  his  hand  from  the  tomb,  and 
at  this  signal  the  pasha  instantly  arrived  from  Spain, 
carrying  with  him  both  fetters  and  stones,  to  the 
great  amazement  of  the  inhabitants  of  Beit  el  Fakih, 
who  were  then  met  to  celebrate  the  amiiversary  fes- 
tival of  their  ghostly  patron.  The  city  contains 
little  of  an  interesting  nature.  The  houses  stand 
separate  from  each  other;  many  of  them  are  built 
of  stone,  others  of  mud  mixed  with  dung.  The  sur- 
rounding plain,  though  not  fertile,  is  well  cultivated ; 
and  the  authority  of  the  resident  dowlah  extends 


GOVERNMENT    OF   ARABIA.  131 

over  a  wide  district.  Hodeida  has  a  tolerable  har- 
bour, a  small  citadel,  a  patron  saint,  and  a  dowlah, 
whose  jurisdiction  is  confined  to  the  town.  Zebid, 
once  the  capital  of  Tehama,  the  residence  of  a  sove- 
reign, and  the  most  commercial  city  on  the  Arabian 
Gulf,  now  retains  little  but  the  shadow  of  its  former 
splendour.  It  is  furnished  with  a  dowlah,  a  mufti, 
three  cadis,  and  an  academy. 

After  visiting  the  coffee-mountains  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, and  the  towns  of  Kahme,  Bulgosa,  and 
Kusma,  which  last  stood  on  the  loftiest  peak  of  the 
range,  Niebuhr  proceeded  to  Udden  and  Jobla.  The 
country  was  solitary ;  and  in  the  few  villages  which 
they  passed  the  houses  were  still  more  wretched 
than  in  Tehama :  they  had  no  walls,  and  consisted 
merely  of  poles  laid  together  and  covered  with  reeds, 
some  of  which  grew  in  the  valley  to  the  height  of 
twenty  feet,  forming  an  agreeable  shade. 

Taas,  a  place  of  some  celebrity,  stands  at  the  foot 
of  the  fertile  hill  of  Sabber,  and  is  encompassed  with 
a  wall  varying  from  sixteen  to  thirty  feet  thick,  and 
flanked  with  several  towers.  Within  this  rampart 
rises  a  steep  rock  about  400  feet  high,  on  which  the 
citadel  or  fortress  of  Kahre  is  built,  defended  by  an 
exterior  coating  of  brick.  The  present  town  is  of 
comparatively  modern  origin,  and  owed  its  founda- 
tion to  the  attractive  virtues  of  the  tomb  of  Ismael 
Malec,  its  patron  saint,  who  according  to  tradition 
was  once  king  of  that  country.  A  mosque  bearing 
his  name  was  reared  on  the  spot  where  his  remains 
were  buried ;  but  nobody  has  been  permitted  to  ap- 
proach his  tomb  since  on  one  occasion  he  thought 
proper  to  work  a  miracle  which  gave  great  dissatis- 
faction to  the  authorities  of  the  place.  This  mar- 
vellous event  was  related  to  Niebuhr : — Two  beggars 
had  asked  charity  from  the  dowlah,  of  whom  one 
only  received  alms  ;  the  other  repaired  to  the  sepul- 
chre of  Ismael  to  implore  his  interposition.  The 
holy  man,  who  when  ahve  had  been  liberal  of  his 


132  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

bounty,  gave  the  mendicant  a  letter  containing  an 
order  on  the  dowlah  for  the  payment  of  100  crowns. 
Upon  examination  the  document  was  found  to  be  in 
the  handwriting  of  the  deceased,  and  sealed  with  his 
seal.  With  such  evidence  before  his  eyes  the 
governor  durst  not  refuse,  and  paid  the  beggar  the 
demand  in  full ;  but,  to  avoid  such  troublesome 
drafts  in  future,  the  tomb  was  enclosed  with  a  lofty 
wall. 

In  the  city  and  neighbourhood  stood  many  deserted 
and  ruinous  mosques,  some  of  which  appeared  to  be 
erected  by  the  Turkish  pashas.  The  subsequent 
governors  of  the  place  had  built  several  noble  pal- 
aces, which  were  the  greatest  ornaments  in  it ;  but 
many  of  the  houses  had  been  destroyed,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  almost  depopulated,  during  the 
civil  wars  occasioned  by  the  revolt  of  the  governor, 
Dowlah  Achmed,  brother  to  the  imam  El  Mansor 
Hossein.  On  being  recalled,  this  officer  refused  to 
obey ;  and  with  a  force  of  2000  men  he  stood  out 
for  twelve  years,  leaving  the  succession  to  his  eldest 
son  Abdallah.  The  place  was  taken  and  pillaged 
about  the  end  of  the  year  1760. 

On  the  route  from  Taas  to  Sanaa  the  principal 
cities  are  Abb,  Jerim  or  Yerim,  and  Damar.  Abb 
is  situate  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  surrounded  by  a 
strong  wall,  and  contains  about  800  houses,  most  of 
them  well  built.  Jerim,  which  some  suppose  to  be 
Dafar,  an  ancient  capital  of  the  Hamyaric  kings,  is 
but  a  small  town ;  the  houses  are  built  of  stone  or 
sun-dried  bricks.  The  castle  stands  on  a  rock,  and 
is  the  residence  of  the  dowlah.  In  all  the  markets 
locusts  were  sold  at  a  low  price ;  and  these  the 
peasants  dry  and  lay  up  for  winter  provisions. 

In  Yemen  the  usual  method  of  travelling  is  on 
asses,  which  in  that  country  are  large,  strong,  and 
spirited,  walking  at  a  pace  not  very  agreeable  to  the 
rider.  As  Christians,  however,  are  not  prohibited 
the  use  of  horses,  Niebuhr  and  his  companions  pre- 


(JOVERNSiENT    Of   ARABIA.  133 

ferred  that  animal ;  hiring  camels  for  their  baggage. 
A  bucket  of  water  is  sometimes  suspended  from  the 
saddle, — that  being  an  article  indispensable  in  these 
arid  regions.  The  roads  in  general  are  of  a  very 
bad  description.  Among  the  mountains  the  path  is 
sometimes  so  narrow  that  a  single  camel  only  can 
pass  at  a  time  ;  in  other  places  it  winds  up  steep  and 
rugged  acclivities,  and  is  formed  of  a  causeway  or 
pavement,  which  is  occasionally  broken  and  ren- 
dered impassable  by  the  descending  torrents. 

The  town  of  Mocha,  the  name  of  which  a  cele- 
brated article  of  its  eXport-trade  has  rendered  so 
familiar  to  our  ears,  has  no  pretensions  to  antiquity. 
It  Was  not  in  existence  400  years  ago ;  and  nothing 
was  known  of  it  till  the  adventures  of  the  Dutch  and 
Portuguese  in  India  opened  the  Red  Sea  to  the 
nations  of  Europe.  Its  place,  as  a  commercial  port, 
was  originally  supplied  by  the  village  of  Moosa. 
This  wretched  hamlet,  which  now  consists  of  a  few 
circular  huts  with  conical  roofs,  built  of  matting  or 
leaves  of  the  date-palm,  must  have  then  stood  on  the 
shore  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  though  the  retirement  of 
the  waters  at  this  spot,  as  elsewhere,  has  left  it  a 
distance  of  five  hours'  journey  from  the  modern 
town.  It  is  still  the  residence  of  a  sub-dowlah,  and 
distinguished  for  its  delicious  water  and  its  excel- 
lent fowls. 

The  origifi  of  Mocha  is  ascribed  to  the  great 
reputation  of  its  patron  saint,  the  famous  Sheik 
Schaedeli,  \vho  had  here  a  hermitage,  which  was 
eagerly  resorted  to  by  disciples  from  all  parts  of 
the  country  to  drink  his  coffee  and  receive  his 
benedictions.  After  his  death  an  elegant  mosque 
was  raised  over  his  tomb :  the  principal  wall  and 
one  of  the  gates  of  the  city  still  bear  his  name  ;  the 
people  swear  by  him,  and  thank  Heaven  every 
morning  on  his  account  for  having  taught  mankind 
the  use  of  that  delightful  beverage,  the  heahng  vir-' 
tues  of  which  were  long  reckoned  as  efficacious  as- 

Vol.  II.— M 


CIVIL   HISTORY    AND 


.is  prayers ;  they  implore  the  Divine  favour  on  his 
descendants,  who  are  held  in  gi'eat  honour,  and  enjoy 
the  title  of  sheik.  Such  is  the  oriental  history  of 
the  founding  of  Mocha.  When  the  Portuguese^ 
under  Don  Alphonso  Albuquerque,  first  visited  it  in 
1513,  it  was  with  the  intention  of  uniting  themselves 
to  the  Abyssinian  Christians  against  their  common 
enemy  the  INIoslems;  but  they  returned  without 
deriving  any  advantage  from  the  attempt.  In  1538, 
it  seems  to  have  been  a  place  of  little  importance, 
probably  under  a  Turkish  governor;  as  Solyman 
Pasha,  who  commanded  the  Eg^^ptian  fleet,  men- 
tioned it  as  a  castle  where  he  stopped  on  returning 
from  his  disgraceful  expedition  against  Diu. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
the  Red  Sea  was  first  visited  by  the  English  under 
Captain  Alexander  Sharpey  of  the  Ascension  (1609), 
Mocha  had  become  the  grand  mart  for  the  trade  be- 
tween India  and  Egypt.     The  Turkish  governor  was 
courteous  and  liberal,  and  allowed  the  foreigners  to 
traffic  without  injury ;  but  the  succeeding  pasha  was 
a  man  of  a  very  different  character,  as  Admiral  Sir 
Henry  Middleton,  who  was  sent  by  the  East  India 
Company  on  a  trading  voyage  the  following  year, 
experienced  to   his  cost.     The  treacherous  Turks 
not  only  assaulted  the  strangers  in  the  town,  but 
made  an  attack  on  their  ships  in  the  harbour.     The 
gallant  commander  and  part  of  the  crew  "were 
manacled  like   so   many  slaves;"   Sir  Henry  was 
threatened  with  the  loss  of  his  head  for  daring  to 
set  his  polluted  foot  on  the  soil  where  the  city  of 
their  holy  Prophet  stood^  and  consigned  to  a  dun- 
geon, where  "  he  had  a  hard  floor  for  his  bed,  a  great 
stone  for  his  pillow,  and  good  store  of  rats  and  mice 
to  keep  him  company."     After  lying  in  captivity  for 
some  time,  he  was  conveyed  a  prisoner  to  Sanaa, 
Avhich  he  describes  as  something  bigger  than  Bris- 
tol ;  but  by  the  interposition  of  certain  friends  he 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  135 

obtained  his  release,  and  was  remanded  to  Mocha, 
with  a  stern  injunction  that  neither  he  nor  any  of  his 
nation  should  again  revisit  these  ports. 

Captain  Saris  with  a  small  expedition  arrived  in 
the  course  of  next  year,  when  he  found  the  Turks 
more  hberal,  and  met  with  greater  civility ;  but  the 
spirit  of  religious  antipathy  was  too  fierce  to  admit 
the  continuance  of  trade.  Monsieur  de  la  Merveille, 
with  the  French  deputation  from  St.  Malo,  had 
visited  Mocha  in  1708,  and  obtained  a  treaty  of 
commerce  and  the  establishment  of  a  factory  for 
his  countrymen ;  previous  to  which  time,  the  only 
foreign  settlement  in  the  town  belonged  to  the 
Dutch. 

It  was  not  till  the  year  1618  that  Captain  Shilling 
of  the  Royal  Anne  obtained  a  firman  from  the  Imam 
of  Sanaa  and  the  Governor  of  Mocha,  granting  to  the 
English,  "  on  the  faith  of  the  Prophet's  beard,  liberty 
to  sell  and  buy  without  let  or  molestation  in  that  or 
any  other  port  within  their  dominions."  Twenty 
years  afterward  the  French  bombarded  the  town,  in 
order  to  extort  payment  of  a  debt  of  82,000  crowns 
(18,620/.)  from  the  dowlah,  which  they  obliged  him 
to  reimburse  ;  besides  reducing  the  duties  from  three 
to  two  and  a  half  per  cent.  During  this  temporary 
warfare,  the  trade  of  the  English  and  Dutch,  who 
had  formed  a  union  of  interests,  remained  in  perfect 
security.  Several  of  the  Arabs  in  Niebuhr's  time 
recollected  the  siege,  and  were  well  pleased  at  the 
punishment  of  the  avaricious  dowlah,  whom  they 
represented  as  pursued  backward  and  forward  wher- 
ever he  went  with  "  pots  of  fire."  This  was  the  last 
city  in  Yemen  of  which  the  Turks  retained  posses- 
sion ;  the  Arabs  having  recovered  it,  according  to 
report,  not  by  conquest,  but  by  purchase.  Since  the 
Ottomans  were  dislodged,  it  has  had  no  other  master 
than  the  Imam  of  Sanaa. 

In  the  present  century  Mocha  has  been  described 
by  various  Europeans.     Viewed  from  a  distance;, 


136  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 

the  town  looks  handsome  and  cheerful,  the  houses 
seem  lofty,  and  have  a  square  solid  appearance. 
Their  unvaried  whiteness  contrasts  beautifully  with 
the  dark-blue  sea,  and,  no  shrub  or  tree  intervening 
to  break  the  uniformity  of  colour,  gives  it  the  sem- 
blance of  being  excavated  from  a  quarry  of  marble. 
Over  the  tabular  line  of  flat  roofs,  the  minarets  of 
three  mosques  rise  to  a  considerable  height,  with 
several  circular  domes  of  kubbets  or  chapels.  The 
roadstead  is  almost  open,  being  only  protected  by 
two  narrow  tongues  of  land,  on  one  of  which  is  a 
ruined  castle,  and  on  the  other  an  insignificant  fort, 
A  grove  of  date-trees  adjoins  the  city,  and  extends 
nearly  two  miles  along  the  southern  beach ;  a 
pleasing  object  for  the  eye  to  repose  upon,  con- 
trasted with  the  interminable  expanse  in  every 
other  direction  of  brown  and  desolate  sterility.  The 
wall,  by  which  it  is  completely  surrounded,  is  not 
more  than  sixteen  feet  high  towards  the  sea ;  though, 
on  the  land  side,  it  may  in  some  places  be  double 
that  height.  The  two  forts  that  guard  the  harbour 
stand  about  a  mile  and  a  half  asunder ;  a  single 
broadside  from  an  English  man-of-war  would  level 
the  whole  to  the  ground. 

The  internal  condition  of  the  city  corresponds  not 
with  the  imposing  aspect  of  the  exterior ;  and  the 
moment  the  traveller  passes  the  gates,  his  romantic 
ideas  are  put  to  flight  by  the  filth  that  abounds  in 
every  street.  The  houses  of  the  lower  class  of  the 
people,  who  rarely  change  their  under-dress  until  it 
is  worn  to  rags,  are  circular  huts  composed  of 
wickerwork,  covered  inside  with  mats,  and  some- 
times on  the  outside  with  a  little  clay.  The  roofs 
are  uniformly  thatched;  and  in  front  each  has  a 
small  area  or  yard  fenced  off.  The  inhabitants  have 
a  singular  fancy  for  crowding  their  dwellings  in 
clusters,  though  there  is  ample  space  within  the 
walls  left  unoccupied.  All  the  principal  buildings 
face  the  sea,  and  consist  chiefly  of  public  edifices 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  137 

The  British  factory  is  a  large  and  lofty  structure ; 
those  of  the  French  and  Dutch  are  rapidly  falling 
into  decay.  The  mansion  of  the  dowlah  is  the  best 
in  the  city,  having  one  front  to  the  sea ;  while  on 
two  other  sides  are  a  square  for  military  exercises, 
and  a  range  of  official  dwellings.  None  of  these 
have  much  pretension  to  architectural  elegance. 
The  walls  have  fantastic  ornaments  in  white  stucco. 
The  windows  are  in  general  small,  and  not  arranged 
in  any  regular  order  ;  they  are  closed  with  lattices, 
and  sometimes  open  into  a  wooden  carved-work 
balcony. 

The  town,  according  to  Lord  Valentia,  does  not 
contain  a  population  of  more  than  5000  souls,  though 
the  French  travellers  made  it  amount  to  twice  that 
number.  The  garrison  consists  of  about  80  horse 
and  200  matchlock-men,  who  receive  a  regular  pay 
of  two  dollars  and  a  half  per  month.  There  is  not  a 
vestige  of  discipline  among  them.  When  on  guard 
at  the  different  gates  they  recline  on  couches,  with 
their  matchlocks  lying  negligently  by  their  side, 
while  the  right  hand  is  occupied  with  sustaining 
either  a  pipe  or  a  cup  of  coffee.  Their  greatest  dis- 
play takes  place  when  they  attend  the  dowlah  to  the 
mosque,  with  the  usual  pomp  of  gay  streamers,  and 
of  green  and  red  flags.  A  lively  writer  has  described 
a  procession  which  he  witnessed  at  Mocha  ten  years 
ago.  The  dowlah  rode  a  beautiful  little  iron-gray 
charger,  and  was  accompanied  by  about  half  a  dozen 
persons,  well  dressed  and  of  some  condition ;  the 
rest  of  the  attendants,  amounting  to  the  like  number, 
were  meanly  clothed,  and  mounted  on  wretched 
horses.  A  large  band  of  regular  infantry  from  the 
garrison  followed,  in  plain  costume, — a  common 
blue  shirt,  small  dark  turbans,  a  rude  body-belt  for 
their  cartridges,  and  a  priming-horn.  They  marched 
m  a  wide  front,  their  matchlocks  sloped  upon  their 
shoulders,  their  free  hands  grasping  the  firearms  of 
their  comrades  singing  as  they  proceeded  some  war« 

M3 


138  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 

song  in  loud  chorus.  When  the  dowlah  reined  up 
at  the  gateway  of  his  residence,  the  military  ranged 
themselves  on  one  side  of  the  square,  and  fired 
three  volleys  in  the  air,  retiring  every  time  to  the 
wall  to  load.  The  only  thing  remarkable  in  their 
exercise  was  their  address  with  the  lance,  and  the 
extremely  small  space  within  which  the  combatants 
wheeled  their  horses. 

The  streets  of  Mocha  present  a  motley  appear- 
ance, both  as  to  the  dress  and  character  of  the  in- 
habitants. Under  the  coarse  awnings  of  its  narrow 
bazars  are  to  be  seen  brown  and  black  complexions, 
half-naked  peasants,  and  richly-attired  merchants, 
in  robes  of  woollen  cloth,  with  a  red  woollen  cap, 
and  a  tassel  of  purple  silk,  peering  above  the  folds 
of  their  snow-white  turban.  There  is  the  Jew, 
the  Banian,  the  Persian,  the  Egyptian,  and  the 
jetty  Abyssinian,  straight  as  the  young  areca,  and 
having  his  short  curled  hair  died  with  a  reddish 
yellow, — the  foppery  of  his  country.  There  is  the 
stout  Arab  porter  in  his  coarse  brown  garment, 
bowing  under  a  heavy  load  of  dates,  the  matting 
all  oozing  and  clammy  with  the  luscious  burden. 
Lastly,  there  is  the  Bedouin,  with  the  hue  of  the 
desert  on  his  cheek,  the  sinewy  hmb,  the  eye  dark 
and  fiery,  his  legs  and  arms  bare,  sandals  on  his  feet, 
and  his  bronzed  bosom  open  to  the  sun  and  wind.  He 
walks  erect,  and  moves  onward  giving  place  to  none ; 
— a  broad,  straight,  two-edged  sword  in  his  hand, 
and  a  long  poniard  in  his  girdle.  Other  objects  in 
these  bazars  attract  attention  : — extended  rows  of 
camels  and  asses,  the  large  coarse  sheep  of  Abys- 
sinia, the  small  thin  species  of  Arabia,  the  tall  brown 
goats  ; — the  shops  of  the  armorers,  with  their  long 
polished  swordblades,  daggers,  spears,  matchlocks, 
and  here  and  there  the  half- worn  shield  of  other 
days  ; — then  there  are  the  cooks'  shops,  with  their 
hot  cakes  of  bread,  and  their  large  coppers  with 
portions  of  meat  and  fowls  swimming  in  ghee,  and 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  139 

ready  for  the  traveller  ; — besides  there  are  the  cara- 
vansaries and  coffee-houses,  with  groups  of  towns- 
men and  traders  reclining  on  couches  of  the  date- 
leaf,  smoking  their  small  hookahs,  sipping  their 
kischer,  and  perpetually  stroking  their  long  beards. 

The  government  of  Mocha  is  one  of  the  best  in 
the  gift  of  the  imam,  owing  to  the  large  sums  which 
the  dowlah  is  able  to  extort  from  the  Banians  and 
foreign  traders.  Formerly  an  Arab  of  high  rank 
was  appointed  to  the  office ;  but  of  late  it  has  been  , 
deemed  more  prudent  to  give  it  to  a  slave,  who  can 
easily  be  removed,  and  from  whom  it  is  more  safe 
to  take  the  profits  of  his  situation.  From  the 
avaricious  temper  of  the  local  authorities,  Niebuhr 
and  his  companions  experienced  the  most  vexatious 
treatment  in  the  seizure  of  their  baggage,  and  the 
destruction  of  some  of  their  valuable  instruments. 
Lord  Valentia  makes  the  same  remark  as  to  the 
covetous  and  tyramiical  character  of  the  ruler  of 
Mocha,  and  ascribes  to  him  a  new  method  of  ex- 
torting money  from  the  Banians,  by  confining  them 
in  a  room,  and  fumigating  them  with  sulphur  till 
they  complied  with  his  demands.  The  dowlah  in 
1823  is  represented  as  a  more  amiable  personage, 
quiet  and  civil  to  Europeans,  and  not  oppressive  to 
the  people.  He  was  an  Abyssinian,  not  at  all 
sUiking  either  in  his  figure  or  appearance,  who  had 
been  a  slave  in  the  family  of  the  imam,  and  pro- 
moted for  his  good  conduct.  Without  the  walls  of 
the  town  are  three  extensive  suburbs  ;  one  occupied 
by  common  labourers  ;  one  by  the  Abyssinian  mar- 
iners, who  detest  the  natives ;  and  the  third  by 
the  Jews,  who  are  not  allowed  to  wear  a  turban, 
and  held  in  such  contempt  that  an  Arab  may  spit 
upon  and  strike  them.  These  last  carry  on  an  ex- 
tensive illicit  trade  in  brandy  distilled  from  dates. 
These  suburbs  are  not  more  cleanly  than  the  town. 
The  bed  of  the  river  Moosa  is  filled  with  an  accu- 

ulation  of  filth  and  rubbish ;    its  waters  never 


140  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

reach  the  sea  except  after  heavy  rains,  on  one  of 
which  occasions  it  swept  away  a  considerable  part 
of  the  Jewish  village  that  had  been  built  in  its  dusty 
channel. 

In  the  territory  of  Yemen,  besides  the  govern- 
ments already  mentioned,  there  are  an  immense 
number  of  small  hereditary  princes,  sheiks,  and 
dowlahs,  w^ho  live  in  a  state  of  vassalage  or  in- 
dependence, according  to  the  ability  of  the  imam 
to  retain  them  in  subjection.  In  nobility  of  descent 
and  dignity  of  rank,  many  of  them  acknowledge 
no  superior,  and  assume  the  symbols  and  preroga- 
tives of  royalty.  To  enumerate  these  petty  sove- 
reigns would  be  impossible.  The  mountain  of 
Scheehava,  north-east  from  Loheia,  contained  300 
villages,  which  were  divided  among  a  great  many 
sheiks,  most  of  whom  claimed  kindred  with  the 
reigning  family  at  Sanaa.  The  famous  hill  of  Sab- 
ber,  near  Taas,  was  said  to  be  parcelled  out  to  more 
than  a  hundred  free  and  hereditary  sheiks. 

Of  independent  states  in  Yemen,  besides  those 
within  the  imam's  dominions,  Niebuhr  has  specified 
no  fewer  than  thirteen ;  and  others  doubtless  might 
exist,  of  which  he  had  obtained  no  information. 
These  were  Aden,  Kaukeban,  Kobail  or  Heschid-u.- 
Bekel,  Abu-Arish,  Khaulan,  Sahan,  Saade,  Nejeran, 
Kahtan,  Nehm,  East  Khaulan,  Jof,  and  Jafa, 

Aden  belonged  to  the  imam  until  1730,  when  the 
J  inhabitants  expelled  the  governor,  elected  a  sheik, 
'  and  declared  themselves  independent.  Abulfeda 
and  Ibn-Haukul  describe  it  as  a  flourishing  town ; 
but  it  suffered  repeated  devastations  in  the  wars 
between  the  Turks  and  Portuguese,  and  its  com- 
merce was  transferred  to  Mocha,  When  Sharpey 
visited  it  (1609),  "  it  belonged  to  the  Great  Turk, 
and  was  the  key  that  let  him  into  all  the  treasures 
and  sweetnesses  of  the  Happy  Arabia."  A  hundred 
years  afterward  the  French,  who  put  into  the  har- 
bour, describe  the  town  as  of  considerable  extent, 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  141 

.and  containing  several  elegant  buildings.  Of  these 
the  finest  were  the  public  baths  :  they  were  all  lined 
with  marble  or  jasper,  covered  with  a  handsome 
dome,  open  at  the  top  for  the  admission  of  light, 
and  adorned  inside  with  galleries,  supported  by 
magnificent  pillars.  The  markets  were  stored  with 
meat,  fish,  and  other  provisions  of  excellent  quality. 
Many  of  the  houses  were  handsome,  and  two  stories 
high;  but  the  heaps  of  rubbish  and  ruins  testified 
that  its  ancient  splendour  was  gone.  The  town  lies 
at  the  foot  of  high  rocky  mountains,  which  surround 
it  almost  on  every  side  ;  on  their  summits  and  in 
the  narrow  passes  were  several  forts.  Towards  the 
sea,  by  which  alone  the  city  can  be  approached  by 
a  very  narrow  causeway  or  peninsula,  the  access 
was  guarded  by  five  or  six  batteries  of  brass  can- 
non. The  bay  is  eight  or  nine  leagues  wide  at  the 
opening,  and  affords  good  anchorage,  from  eighteen 
to  twenty  fathoms.  The  scenery  around  is  of  a 
wild  and  savage  character,  giving  few  indications 
of  that  felicity  or  delight  of  which  its  name  is  said 
to  be  the  expression.  Cape  Aden  is  a  very  lofty 
and  steep  rock,  which  the  mariner  can  descry  at  the 
distance  of  15  or  20  leagues.  To  this  small  state 
pertain  a  number  of  inferior  towns  and  castles. 

The  principality  of  Kaukeban  was  ruled  by  imams 
of  its  own,  claiming  their  descent  from  Mohammed., 
until  they  were  obliged  to  yield  up  the  title  to  Khas- 
sem,  the  new  Arabian  conqueror.  The  chiefs  of 
Kobail  compose  a  sort  of  confederacy  (Heschid-u 
Bekel)  for  their  mutual  defence ;  their  subjects 
make  excellent  soldiers.  The  territory  of  Jafa  i,* 
surrounded  by  that  of  Aden,  and  was  under  I'ne 
dominion  of  Sanaa  until  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
when  the  inhabitants  revolted  from  the  imam.  In 
these  districts  are  a  multitude  of  petty  sovereigns, 
the  chief  of  whom  take  the  title  of  sultans  ;  Jafa  and 
Jof  being  he  only  part  of  Arabia  where  that  name 
is  used.  Abu-Arish  and  Mareb  are  governed  by 
sheriffs ;  the  latter  lies  16  leagues  north-east  from 


142  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

Sanaa,  and,  though  containing  only  about  300  houses 
of  mean  appearance,  is  the  capital  of  the  province. 

The  province  of  Hadramaut  is  ruled  by  a  num- 
ber of  petty  independent  sovereigns,  of  whose  his- 
tory or  dominions  little  has  been  recorded  beyond 
the  names  of  a  few  cities  on  the  coast.  These  have 
their  particular  sheiks,  many  of  whom  may  have 
descended  in  patriarchal  succession  from  the  most 
remote  antiquity.  Among  those  princes,  some  have 
been  dignified  by  travellers,  but  improperly,  with 
the  title  of  kings.  The  city  of  Doan  is  said  to  be 
more  elegant  than  the  capital  of  Yemen,  from  which 
it  is  distant  five-and-twenty  days'  journe3^  The 
most  powerful  of  these  sovereigns  is  the  Sheik  of 
Keshin,  whose  dominions  composed  the  imaginary 
kingdom  of  Fartach,  as  laid  down  in  the  older  maps  ; 
■ — an  error  which  may,  perhaps,  have  arisen  from 
his  occasional  residence  in  the  town  of  that  name. 
He  possesses  the  island  of  Socotra,  of  which  the 
heir-presumptive  of  the  reigning  family  is  always 
the  governor.  Dafar  and  Shibam  have  their  resi- 
dent sheiks,  Aidan  used  to  be  celebrated  for  its 
annual  fair,  and  the  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of 
Kahtan. 

The  province  of  Oman  is  governed  by  an  imam, 
but  contains  a  number  of  petty  sovereigns,  of 
whom  the  princes  of  Jau,  Gabria,  Gafar,  Rank, 
Gabbi,  Dahara,  Makaniat,  and  Seer  have  the  title 
of  sheik.  Seer,  which  the  Persians  call  Julfar,  ex- 
tends from  Cape  Mussendom  along  the  Gulf,  and 
js  ruled  by  a  chief  of  considerable  maritime  power. 
It  is  one  of  those  districts  which  withdrew  from 
the  authority  of  the  imam-  Of  the  cities  and  towns 
of  Oman  little  is  known.  Rostak  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  sovereign.  Sohar  and  Kalbat  were 
once  flourishing  cities,  but  now  greatly  decayed. 

The  modern  capital,  from  which  the  sovereign 
takes  his  title,  is  Muscat.  The  Portuguese  made 
themselves  masters  of  it  in  1508,  and  built  two 


GOVERNMENT    OV    ARABIA.  143 

churches,  one  of  which  was  afterward  converted 
into  a  magazine,  and  the  other  into  the  residence 
of  the  wah,  or  governor.  From  this  possession  they 
were  driven  by  the  Arabs  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  through  the  treacherous  aid 
of  a  Banian,  who  had  been  robbed  of  his  daughter 
by  the  Portuguese  commander.  In  1746,  Oman  was 
invaded  by  Nadir  Shah,  who  subdued  all  the  coun-' 
try  as  far  as  Muscat,  which  he  also  tookj  with  the 
exception  of  two  forts.  On  the  death  of  that  war- 
like prince  the  Persians  abandoned  their  conquests. 
The  ancient  reigning  families,  the  Gaffri,  the  Ha- 
mani,  and  the  Arrabi  (the  latter  pretended  to  be  the 
descendants  of  the  Koreish),  again  resumed  the  su^ 
preme  power.  It  was  at  this  period  that  Ahmed 
ibn  Said,  ancestor  to  the  present  imam,  succeeded 
in  establishing  his  independence,  after  a  feeble  re- 
sistance from  the  Gaffri.  Several  years  ago,  when 
the  government  of  India  was  engaged  in  suppress" 
ing  Arab  pirates  (the  Joassamees)  who  infested  the 
Persian  Gulf,  this  prince  acted  in  alliance  with  the 
British  ;  and  it  is  to  this  circumstance  that  we  owe 
much  of  our  recent  information  as  to  the  state  of  his 
capital,  and  the  resources  of  his  government.* 

The  town  of  Muscat  is  romantically  situated, 
being  built  on  a  small  sandy  beach,  and  lying  in 
a  sort  of  glen  or  recess  behind  the  bay.  On  either 
hand  it  is  surrounded  v/ith  bleak  and  rugged  cliffs  ; 
without  a  tree,  a  flower,  or  a  blade  of  grass  to  break 
their  uniformity  of  nakedness.  Occasionally  their 
tops  are  shrouded  in  mist^  with  here  and  there  a 
hoary  waterfall,  dashing  from  rock  to  rock  until  it 
reaches  the  ocean  below.  The  harbour,  the  best  and 
almost  the  only  one  oil  that  part  of  the  Arabian 

*  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Assyria.  Fraser's  Journey.  Sir 
J.  Malcolm's  Sketches  of  Persia.  An  interesting  account  of 
Seid-Said.  who  mounted  the  throne  in  1807,  is  given  by  his  phy- 
eicisin,  Tmcenzo,  a  native  of  Italy,  under  the  name  of  Sheik 
Mansfcur. 


144  CIVIL   HISTOR-?   AND 

coast,  has  a  singular  appearance.  It  is  bounded  on 
each  side  with  bold  and  abrupt  rocks,  from  two  to 
three  hundred  feet  high,  on  which  are  numerous 
small  forts.  The  town  is  protected  by  several  bat- 
teries ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  city  is  composed 
of  ill-built  houses,  and  huts  of  date-tree  leaves  of 
the  most  wretched  description,  all  huddled  together 
in  the  greatest  confusion.  The  streets  are  rough, 
narrow,  and  crooked.  The  windows,  ^vhich  are 
without  glass,  resemble  loopholes,  and  the  walls 
are  covered  with  a  white  plaster  or  cement.  The 
Water  is  good ;  the  fruit  of  the  best  quality, — grapes 
mangoes,  peaches,  plantains,  figs,  pomegranates, 
limes,  melons,  and  dates.  Nowhere  is  there  greater 
variety  of  fish ;  in  the  bay  they  swarm  like  gnats 
in  a  summer  evening ;  the  rocks  supply  oysters  and 
other  shell-fish,  all  of  which  are  sold  at  a  very 
cheap  rate.  As  the  pasturage  is  scanty  in  thiS' 
neighbourhood,  dried  fish  a  little  salted,  and  pounded 
date-stones,  form  the  chief  articles  of  food  for  their' 
cattle,  of  which  they  are  very  fond.  Horses  and 
sheep  as  well  as  cows  are  fed  on  this  diet. 

The  property  of  the  inhabitants  consists  for  the 
most  part  in  thehr  live-stock ;  but  the  most  valu- 
able species  is  the  date-tree,  the  price  of  which, 
individually,  varies  from  seven  to  ten  dollars ;  and 
by  this  standard  they  estimate  landed  estates,  which 
are  said  to  be  worth  three,  four,  or  five  thousand 
date-trees,  according  to  the  number  that  growls  upon 
them.  Property  of  every  kind  descends  by  inherit- 
ance, the  son  possessing  the  liberty  of  disposing  of 
it  as  he  pleases.  The  sovereign  has  no  right  in  the 
soil,  farther  tlian  the  tenth  of  its  produce  ;  nor  can 
he  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  privileges  of  the 
owner.  Lands  are  commonly  let  on  lease,  or  for  an 
annual  rent,  usually  payable  in  produce.  Slaves  are 
here,  as  in  all  other  parts  of  Arabia,  employed  in 
agricultural  labour ;  but  they  are  treated  with  uni 
form  kindness  and  indulgence.  Oman  is  by  no  means 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  145 

celebrated  for  its  manufactures.  Turbans  and  waist- 
bands, or  girdles  of  cotton  and  silk,  striped  or  checked 
with  blue ;  cloaks,  cotton,  canvass,  gunpowder,  and 
arms  of  inferior  quality;  earthen  jars,  called  murht- 
ban,  for  the  Zanguebar  market,— comprise  almost  all 
their  fabrics.  They  also  prepare  an  esteemed  sweet- 
meat, named  hulwo.h,  from  honey  or  sugar,  with  the 
gluten  of  wheat,  and  ghee,  and  a  few  almonds. 

The  price  of  live-stock  at  Muscat  is  extremely 
various.  Camels,  according  to  their  blood  and  qual- 
ity, will  bring  from  thirty  to  three  hundred  dollars 
apiece ;  goats  from  four  to  six ;  sheep  from  one 
and  a  half  to  six  ;  mules  are  not  reared,  neither  are 
horses  abundant ;  but  the  asses  of  Oman  are  cele- 
brated as  the  finest  in  Arabia.  The  price  of  the 
common  kind  varies  from  one  to  forty  dollars  ;  but 
the  best  breeds  sell  for  very  extravagant  sums. 

The  present  imam  is  considered  the  richest  and 
most  powerful  sovereign  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  Such 
of  the  British  officers  and  merchants  as  have  visited 
that  port  represent  him  as  a  man  of  amiable  dis- 
positions, and  possessed  of  superior  talents  and  in- 
formation ;  being  much  superior  to  the  Arab  chiefs 
in  general,  and  adored  by  his  subjects.  He  admin- 
isters justice  daily  in  person,  sitting  under  a  portico 
in  the  vicinity  of  his  palace  ;  and  his  decisions  in 
general  are  received  without  a  murmur.  Mr.  Fraser 
describes  his  countenance  as  of  mild  and  pleasing 
features, — his  complexion  of  a  light  yellow, — his 
eyes  dark  and  expressive,  though  rendered  almost 
sleepy  at  times  by  their  heavy  lids  and  long  dark 
lashes;  his  beard  was  full  and  black,  without  the 
assistance  of  die ;  his  mustachios  being  clipped  rather 
short,  and  allowing  part  of  the  cheek  to  be  seen. 
His  dress  was  the  plain  Arab  costume, — a  white 
cotton  gown  with  wide  sleeves,  opening  down  the 
breast,  but  buttoned  to  the  throat,  and  reaching  to 
the  ankles ;  round  his  waist  was  a  scarf  of  blue 
checked  cotton,  in  which  was  stuck  a  silver-hilted 

Vol.  II.— N 


146  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

dagger  or  jambea.  A  blue  checked  cotton  handker- 
chief was  wound  round  his  head,  the  ends  hanging 
down,  and  bordered  with  red,  green,  and  yellow. 
His  sword  was  of  the  Persian  form,  in  a  plain  black 
scabbard.  The  chief  minister.  Said  Abdul  Kaher 
was  as  plainly  dressed  as  his  master.  Neither  of 
them  wore  jewel  or  ornament  of  any  kind. 

The  palace  is  the  most  conspicuous  edifice  in  the 
town :  it  stands  close  by  the  sea,  is  three  stories 
high,  and  might  be  mistaken  for  a  merchant's  count- 
ing-house and  store-rooms.  The  hall  of  audience 
is  a  veranda  overhanging  the  water,  under  the  ter- 
race of  which  boats  pull  up  to  land  visiters.  The 
floor  was  covered  v/ith  a  common  Persian  carpet, 
and  the  furniture  consisted  of  a  table  and  a  few  plain 
chairs  in  the  European  fashion.  A  collation  was 
served  of  fruits,  sweetmeats,  and  sherbets,  set  out 
in  cut  crystal  of  the  most  elegant  fabric.  Though 
naturally  gentle,  this  prince  is  not  deficient  in  energy 
and  decision  when  occasion  requires.  His  courage 
in  battle  was  frequently  signalized  while  co-operating 
with  the  British  forces  ;  particularly  in  the  expedi- 
tion with  Sir  John  Malcolm  against  the  Arab  pirates 
in  the  Gulf,  where  his  assistance  materially  con- 
tributed to  their  suppression.  At  the  attack  of  one 
of  the  towns,  when  the  British  were  compelled  to 
retire,  the  imam  observed  at  some  distance  a  sergeant 
alone,  and  surrounded  by  a  detachment  of  the  enemy. 
Unsupported  as  he  was,  he  did  not  hesitate  a  mo- 
ment ;  returning  instantly,  he  dashed  singly  among 
the  rebels,  and,  after  killing  several  of  them,  brought 
off  the  man  in  safety. 

The  revenues  of  the  imam  are  derived  from  various 
sources.  Besides  receiving  a  tenth  of  the  produce 
of  the  soil,  he  possesses  considerable  landed  prop- 
erty of  his  own,  and  rents  extensive  tracts  of 
country  from  the  Persian  government,  including 
valuable  mines  of  sulphur.  A  more  lucrative  source 
income  is  the  duty  of  one-half  pe^'  cent    on  all 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  147 

merchandise  passing  up  the  Gulf  in  Arab  bottoms. 
From  the  province  of  Oman  alone,  it  has  been 
reckoned  at  more  than  120,000  dollars  (26,250/.) 
amiually;  and  from  all  other  ports  of  Arabia,  and 
from  Zanguebar,  to  about  30,000  or  40,000  dollars 
more.  Commerce,  however,  is  the  chief  fountain 
of  his  wealth.  Besides  the  ports  on  the  Gulf,  he 
trades  to  all  parts  of  the  East ;  to  the  coasts  of 
Arabia  and  Africa ;  to  Madagascar  and  the  Mauritius. 
His  capital  is  the  great  entrepot  for  warehousing  and 
exchanging  the  produce  of  various  nations  ;  and  in 
such  a  traffic,  the  sovereign  doubtless  possesses 
many  advantages  over  his  subjects.  His  expendi- 
ture is  light  compared  to  his  income ;  he  has  no 
regular  military  establishment  to  keep  up,  nor  any 
expensive  machinery  of  government ;  and  after  all 
his  outlay,  it  is  supposed  that  he  may  deposite  an- 
nually a  surplus  of  nearly  100,000  dollars. 

In  addition  to  his  hereditary  dominions  on  the 
Arabian  coast,  the  imam  holds  in  possession  the 
islands  of  Kishma  and  Ormuz  ;  and  rents,  from  the 
crown  of  Persia,  Gombroon  with  its  dependencies, 
including  a  tract  of  coast  of  about  ninety  miles  in 
extent.  The  inhabitants  of  Muscat,  in  point  of 
manners,  cleanliness,  and  liberality  to  strangers,  are 
reckoned  the  most  civilized  of  their  countrymen; 
and,  though  not  addicted  to  war,  they  are  esteemed 
the  best  mariners  in  Arabia.  They  use  small  mer- 
chant-vessels called  trankis,  the  sails  of  which  are 
not  formed  of  matting,  as  in  Yemen,  but  of  linen. 
The  planks  are  not  nailed,  but  tied  or  sewed  toge- 
ther. A  little  to  the  north-west  of  Muscat,  and  seated 
at  the  bottom  of  a  cove  nearly  resembling  its  own, 
lies  the  town  of  Muttra.  Though  a  place  of  less 
business,  it  contains  a  greater  number  of  well-built 
houses,  and  affords  a  cooler  and  more  agreeable 
residence  than  the  capital. 

The  province  of  Hajar,  or  El  Ha^sa,  belonged  to 
the  sheiks  of  the  Beni  Khaled,  one  of  the  most 


148  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

powerful  tribes  in  Arabia,  whose  jurisdiction  ex- 
tended so  far  through  the  Desert  as  often  to  harass 
the  caravans  passing  between  Bagdad  and  Aleppo. 
Katif,  or  El  Katif,  is  a  port  and  a  large  trading 
town,  with  a  deep  bay  and  the  ruins  of  an  old  Por- 
tuguese fortress.  The  inhabitants  share  with  the 
Bahrein  islands  in  their  pearl-fishery  as  well  as  in 
their  general  commerce,  though  the  governments 
are  independent  of  each  other.  Graine  is  a  large 
and  populous  town,  seated  on  a  fine  bay;  though  the 
sandy  desert  presses  close  upon  its  walls,  and  not 
a  blade  of  vegetation  enlivens  the  dreary  scenery 
around.  It  stands  about  fifty  miles  from  the  bar 
of  the  Euphrates  ;  and  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  mer- 
cantile and  trading  people,  who  engage  in  all  the 
branches  of  commerce  carried  on  throughout  the 
Gulf.  Their  principal  employment  is  fishing,  and 
Niebuhr  states  that  more  than  800  boats  were 
engaged  in  this  species  of  naval  industry. 

The  isles  of  Bahrein  may  be  considered  as  part 
of  Hajar,  and  were  formerly  sul)ject  to  the  lords 
or  kings  of  Lahsa.  They  were  taken  possession  of, 
after  many  revolutions  and  changes  of  masters,  by 
the  combined  arms  of  the  Portuguese  and  Persians  ; 
and  Antonio  Correa,  the  leader  of  the  former,  added 
the  title  of  Bahrein  to  his  name.  The  cause  of 
this  expedition  was  the  refusal  of  Mocrim,  sheik  of 
Lahsa,  to  pay  tribute.  The  chief  was  beheaded, 
and  the  Portuguese  commander,  in  memory  of  the 
share  which  he  had  in  this  event,  was  authorized  to 
bear  a  king's  head  in  his  coat-of-arms,  which  the 
historians  of  his  own  country  say  is  still  borne  by 
his  descendants.  These  islands  are  two  in  number ; 
the  larger  is  called  Bahrein,  an  appellation  which 
seems  modern,  for  Abulfeda.  and  the  Arabs  of  the 
coast  call  it  Aval;  the  smaller  retains  its  ancient 
name  of  Arad.  The  length  of  the  former  is  about 
ten  miles,  and  its  breadth  five.  Its  general  appear- 
ance is  low ;  but  it  is   everywhere  fertile,  well 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  149 

watered,  and  supports  a  numerous  population.  The 
whole  soil  is  industriously  cultivated,  producing 
dates,  figs,  citrons,  peaches,  and  other  fruits.  It 
is  reckoned  to  contain  no  fewer  than  300  villages 
Minawah,  the  principal  town,  is  large  and  populous, 
and  has  a  good  harbour,  with  twelve  caravansaries. 
Here  many  wealthy  merchants  reside,  and  carry  on 
an  extensive  commerce  with  India,  as  well  as  in 
supplying  the  Arabian  markets  with  the  manufac- 
,  tures  and  productions  of  that  country. 

This  island  is  remarkable  for  its  springs  of  fresh 
water  arising  in  the  sea.  One  of  these  gushes  up 
with  great  force  through  a  sandy  bottom,  at  the  depth 
of  three  fathoms.  A  jar  is  fitted  to  the  mouth  of 
this  spring ;  and  to  procure  the  water  a  person  dives 
with  an  empty  bag  of  goat's  skin  rolled  under  his 
arm  :  this  he  dexterously  places  over  the  mouth  of 
the  jar,  and  being  filled  in  a  few  seconds,  it  floats 
up  with  him  to  the  surface.  There  are  four  or  five 
springs  of  this  kind  round  the  island,  and  in  this 
way  is  obtained  all  the  water  that  is  drunk  at  Arad. 
Strabo  mentions  a  similar  spring  near  the  Phenician 
island  of  Aradus,  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  from  which 
the  ingenious  inhabitants  contrived  to  draw  a  supply 
by  means  of  a  leaden  ball  and  a  leathern  pipe. 

The  chief  celebrity  of  these  islands  is  derived  from 
their  valuable  pearl-fishery,  which  is  carried  on  in 
June,  July,  and  August.  In  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  produce  was  estimated  at  five  hundred  thousand 
ducats  (147,395Z.)  ;  at  present  it  is  calculated  to 
yield  annually  pearls  to  the  value  of  about  twenty 
lacks  of  rupees  (193,750/.) :  the  greatest  portion  of 
which  is  shipped  for  India,  and  the  remainder  are 
dispersed  throughout  the  Persian  and  Turkish  em- 
pires, by  way  of  Bushire,  Bussora,  and  Bagdad. 
From  thence  the  best  specimens  are  conveyed  to 
Constantinople,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  even  the  great 
capitals  of  Europe.  The  bank  on  which  this  fishery 
is  carried  on  ex  ends  nearly  southward  to  Ras  el 

N2 


150  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

Khyma,  and  the  finest  of  the  pearls  are  found  among 
the  group  of  Maude's  islands,  near  Haloola,  so  called 
probably  from  loolo,  the  Arabic  name  for  a  pearl. 

About  two  thousand  boats  are  annually  employed 
in  this  trade,  of  which  the  islands  of  Bahrein  fur- 
nish one-half,  and  the  small  ports  on  the  coast  the 
remainder.  In  the  summer  months  the  bank  pre- 
sents a  busy  scene.  The  divers  are  Arabs  and  negro 
slaves,  who  are  generally  trained  to  the  practice 
from  their  youth.  They  go  down  in  all  depths, 
from  five  to  fifteen  fathoms,  remaining  from  two  to 
five  minutes,  and  bringing  up  from  eight  to  twelve 
oysters  in  both  hands.  On  reaching  the  surface 
they  merely  take  time  to  recover  breath,  and  then 
dive  again  immediately.  The  largest  and  finest 
pearls  are  brought  up  from  the  deepest  water ;  and 
all  of  them  are  said  to  be  as  hard  when  taken  out 
of  the  fish  as  they  are  ever  afterward.  At  first 
they  are  of  a  purer  white  than  after  they  have  been 
exposed  to  the  air;  and  in  this  respect  they  are 
calculated  to  lose  annually  one  per  cent,  in  value. 
Of  the  two  kinds,  the  yellow  are  chiefly  sent  to 
India,  where  this  tinge  is  preferred ;  the  pure  white 
are  most  esteemed  in  Europe,  and  even  find  a  better 
market  in  all  the  great  Turkish  and  Persian  towns. 
The  pearl  of  Bahrein  is  considered  very  superior  to 
that  of  Ceylon,  both  in  quality  and  colour.  Before 
sending  them  off  from  the  island,  they  are  carefully 
assorted  as  to  size,  shape,  and  tint ;  then,  being 
drilled  through,  are  strung  on  threads,  and  made  up 
into  round  bundles  of  about  three  inches  diameter, 
sealed  and  directed,  and  sent  in  that  form  to  their 
various  destinations.  They  are  then  called  by  the 
metaphorical  name  of  Roomaan  el  Bahr,  or  "  pome- 
granates of  the  sea,"  to  which  these  bundles  bear  a 
pretty  exact  resemblance. 

All  the  gains  of  the  fishery  are  divided  in  the  most 
equitable  way,  by  shares  in  proportion  to  the  capital 
embarked  in  the  boats.     The  food  of  the  divers 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  151 

during  the  season  is  chiefly  fish,  dates,  and  a  small 
allowance  of  bread,  rice,  and  oil.  Their  earnings  are 
barely  enough  to  support  them  through  the  winter, 
which  they  pass  in  a  state  of  indolence  and  dissipa- 
tion. They  use  the  precaution  of  oiling  the  orifice 
of  their  ears,  and  placing  a  horn  over  the  nose  when 
they  dive,  to  prevent  the  water  from  entering  by 
these  apertures ;  but  when  they  have  been  long 
engaged  in  this  service,  their  bodies  are  subject  to 
break  out  in  sores,  their  eyes  become  bloodshot  and 
weak,  and  all  their  faculties  seem  to  undergo  a  pre- 
mature decay.* 

The  coast  from  Cape  Mussendom  to  Bahrein  has 
been,  from  time  immemorial,  occupied  by  a  piratical 
tribe  of  Arabs  called  Joassamees,  already  alluded 
to.  Their  local  position  necessarily  engaged  them 
in  maritime  pursuits,  either  as  traders  in  their  own 
vessels,  or  as  pilots  and  sailors  hired  to  navigate 
the  small  craft  of  the  Gulf.  From  their  superior 
skill  and  industry,  and  fidelity  to  their  engagements, 
they  maintained  a  high  reputation,  until  subdued  by 
the  arms  of  the  Wahabees,  after  a  resistance  of  three 
years.  Their  principal  town,  Ras  el  Khyma,  with 
all  its  dependencies  along  the  coast,  suumitted  to 
the  yoke,  and  embraced  the  new  doctrines  of  the 
conquerors. 

This  revolution  wrought  a  total  change,  not  only 
in  the  faith  but  in  the  character  and  habits  of  these 
refractory  tribes.  Instead  of  living  quietly  on  thej 
scanty  productions  of  their  own  soil,  and  the  fish 
of  their  own  waters,  the  Joassamees  directed  their 
views  to  war  and  plunder.  Their  first  captures  were 
the  small  coasting  traders  which,  from  their  defence- 
less state,  soon  fell  an  easy  prey.  Imboldened  by 
success,  they  directed  their  efforts  to  higher  em- 
prises, until  their  prowess  was  felt  and  dreaded  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

*  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Assyria,  chap,  xxiii.  Morier's 
Travels  through  Persia. 


152  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 

It  was  about  the  year  1797  that  they  first  came 
into  collision  with  the  British  government  in  the 
East ;  for  as  they  had  hitherto  waged  war  only 
agEiinst  what  are  called  native  vessels,  no  hostile 
measures  had  been  taken  against  them  by  the  Eng- 
lish. In  that  year  they  had  the  boldness  to  violate 
this  neutrality  by  attacking,  under  pretext  of  obtain- 
ing a  supply  of  ammunition,  one  of  the  East  India 
Company's  cruisers,  the  Viper,  of  ten  guns,  while 
lying  at  anchor  in  the  inner  roads  of  Bushire.  The 
pirates  were  beaten  off;  but  with  the  loss  of  the 
gallant  Lieutenant  Carruthers  and  a  considerable 
number  of  the  crew.  This  act  of  daring  treachery, 
however,  did  not  call  forth  the  immediate  vengeance 
of  the  India  government.  In  1804,  fresh  aggressions 
were  commenced,  and  continued  for  a  series  of  years 
with  increasing  insolence  and  barbarity.  Not  fewer 
than  nine  British  cruisers  or  ships  of  war, — the 
Fly,  Shannon,  Trimmer,  Fury,  Mornington,  Teign- 
mouth,  Minerva,  Sylph,  and  Nautilus, — were  suc- 
cessively attacked  or  seized  by  these  daring  maraud- 
ers, and  numbers  of  their  crews  and  passengers  put 
to  the  sword. 

This  system  of  lawless  aggression,  and  the  seri- 
ous injury  suffered  by  the  Gulf  trade,  at  length  in- 
duced the  British  government  to  have  recourse  to 
vigorous  measures  for  maintaining  the  national 
character,  and  clearing  the  seas  of  these  brigands. 
In  1810,  Lieutenant-colonel  (afterward  Sir  Lionel) 
Smith  and  Captain  Wainwright  were  sent  against 
them  with  a  considerable  armament,  which  sailed 
from  Bombay  in  September,  and  soon  anchored  off 
Ras  el  Khyma,  where  the  troops  were  landed  under 
cover  of  the  boats  and  ships.  This  metropolis  of 
the  pirates  stands  in  latitude  25°  47',  and  longitude 
55°  34',  on  a  narrow  tongue  of  sandy  land,  with  a 
safe  harbour,  extending  about  half  a  mile  in  length 
and  a  quarter  in  breadth — having  several  strong 
points  of  defence  with  towers  and  batteries.    Their 


GOVERNMENT   OF    ARABIA.  153 

maritime  force  was  considerable ;  and  if  concen- 
trated might  have  amounted  to  at  least  100  vessels, 
with  perhaps  400  pieces  of  cannon,  and  about  8000 
fighting-men,  well  armed  with  muskets,  swords,  and 
spears.  On  the  landing  of  the  Enghsh,  the  inhabit- 
ants assembled  in  crowds  to  repel  the  invaders  ;  but 
the  regular  volleys  and  steady  charge  of  the  troops 
overcame  every  obstacle,  and  multiplied  the  heaps 
of  slain.  A  general  conflagration  was  ordered,  with 
unlimited  permission  to  plunder.  The  town  was 
instantly  set  on  fire  in  all  parts,  and  about  sixty  sail 
of  boats  and  dows,  including  the  captured  Minerva, 
were  burned  and  destroyed.  The  complete  con- 
quest of  the  place  was  thus  effected  with  very  trifling 
loss  to  the  assailants. 

The  expedition  then  proceeded  to  Linga,  a  small 
port  of  the  Joassamees,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Gulf,  which  was  taken  without  resistance.  Luft, 
another  of  their  harbours  in  the  island  of  Kishma, 
was  attacked ;  and,  though  severely  galled  with 
musketry,  the  British  succeeded  in  getting  posses- 
sion of  the  place.  The  town  and  fortress  were  de- 
livered over  to  the  Imam  of  Muscat,  as  this  was  a 
settlement  which  had  been  taken  from  him  by  the 
pirates.  Their  next  exploit  was  the  recovery  of 
Shenaz,  a  fort  that  had  also  belonged  to  the  same 
prince,  nearly  midway  between  Muscat  and  Cape 
JNIussendom.  When  about  four  thousand  shot  and 
shells  had  been  discharged,  a  breach  was  reported  to 
be  practicable,  and  the  castle  was  accordingly 
stormed.  The  resistance  made  in  the  town  was 
still  desperate — the  Arabs  fighting  as  long  as  they 
could  wield  the  sword  ;  and  even  thrusting  their 
spears  up  through  the  smoking  fragments  of  towers 
and  houses,  in  whose  ruins  they  remained  irrecov- 
erably buried.  Their  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  computed  at  upwards  of  1000  men.  The  ex- 
pedition, having  now  swept  round  the  bottom  of  the 
Gulf,  and  believing  their  object  was  accomplished. 


354  CIVIL   HISTORY   AND 

returned  to  India.  But  the  sequel  proved  that  their 
task  was  far  from  being  completed.  In  a  few  years 
the  piracies  were  renewed,  accompanied  with  the 
usual  atrocities,  and  extended  as  far  as  the  en- 
trance of  the  Red  Sea. 

A  second  expedition  was  fitted  out,  which  sailed 
from  Bombay  in  November,  1819.  Ras  el  Khyma 
and  the  fort  of  Zyah  were  again  reduced — the  Arabs 
during  these  operations  displaying  a  courage  and  per- 
tinacity that  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  troops 
opposed  to  them.  To  bind  them  more  strictly,  and 
to  try  the  effect  of  moral  influence,  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded, which  guarantied  the  cessation  of  plunder 
and  piracy  by  sea  and  land.  Matters  being  so  far 
adjusted,  the  squadron  returned  to  Bombay,  leaving 
a  force  of  1200  native  troops  and  artillery  at  Ras  el 
Khyma,  the  occupation  of  which  was  merely  in- 
tended as  a  temporary  measure.  The  services  of 
this  detachment  were  soon  rendered  necessary 
against  a  tribe  of  Arabs  called  the  Beni  bu  Ali,  oc- 
casioned chiefly  by  the  complaints  of  the  Imam  of 
Muscat.  The  settlement  of  this  fierce  tribe  lay  near 
Cape  Ras  el  Hud;  but  the  first  attempt  of  the  Brit- 
ish, who  were  commanded  by  Captain  Thomson, 
entirely  failed.  By  a  sudden  and  overwhelming 
attack  of  the  natives  the  detachment  was  totally 
destroyed.  Out  of  three  hundred  and  eleven  that 
went  into  action,  seven  officers  and  249  men  were 
murdered  on  the  spot.  Scarcely  a  wounded  man 
escaped,  as  the  khunjer,  or  dagger,  finished  what 
the  sword  began. 

This  disaster,  however,  was  speedily  repaired  by 
a  third  expedition  fitted  out  at  Bombay  next  year, 
and  which  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  the 
town  of  Bu  Ali ;  the  works  were  blown  up,  and  such 
of  the  guns  and  heavy  stores  as  could  not  be  carried 
off  were  destroyed.  The  inhabitants  defended  their 
fortress  with  a  bravery  approaching  to  phrensy, 
which  an  eyewitness  compared  to  that  of  the  Scotch 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  155 

Highlanders  at  Prestonpans,  both  as  to  the  mode  of 
warfare  and  the  deadly  weapon,  the  broadsword, 
used  on  these  occasions  with  such  desperate  execu- 
tion. "  All,"  says  he,  "  who  beheld  this  extraordi- 
nary attack  concur  in  declaring  that  more  deter- 
mined courage  and  self-devoting  resolution  never 
was  displayed  by  any  men  than  by  the  Arabs.  On 
that  day,  not  only  were  they  totally  unchecked  in 
their  advance  by  the  heavy  and  well-sustained  fire 
which  mowed  them  down  in  multitudes  every  in- 
stant ;  but,  despising  the  lines  of  bayonets  opposed 
to  them,  they  threw  themselves  upon  the  troops, 
seizing  their  weapons  with  both  hands  to  break  their 
ranks,  and  sacrificed  themselves  to  cut  dowr  their 
enemies,  even  with  the  bayonet  sticking  in  their 
bodies.  All  the  Indian  and  European  troops  that 
fell  were  cut  down  with  the  broadsword,  the  match- 
lock being  scarcely  used  during  the  whole  aifair. 
Before  the  firing  had  entirely  ceased,  women  were 
to  be  seen  walking  among  the  dead  and  dying,  totally 
regardless  of  the  danger  that  surrounded  them  : 
their  object  was,  according  to  custom,,  to  drag  off 
their  friends  who  had  been  killed  or  wounded  ;  and 
it  appeared  that  some  of  them  were  actually  en- 
gaged in  the  attack.  Notwithstanding  the  loss  of 
husbands  and  children,  they  bore  no  outward  signs 
of  grief;  nor  did  they  utter  one  lamentation,  or 
shed  openly  one  tear  of  regret  or  apprehension,  at 
the  very  moment  when  their  fortress  was  blown  up, 
and  they  believed  themselves  to  be  included  in  the 
work  of  destruction."*  Part  of  the  prisoners  were 
delivered  over  to  the  Imam  of  Muscat,  and  part  car- 
ried to  Daristan,  on  the  island  of  Kishma,  to  which 
the  troops  left  at  Ras  el  Khyma  had  been  trans- 
ferred, on  account  of  bad  health  and  the  scarcity 
of  provisions. 
On  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Gulf,  from  the  mouths 

*  Fiaser's  Journey  to  Kliorasan.    Appendix  A. 


156  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

of  the  Euphrates  nearly  to  those  of  the  Indus,  nu- 
merous Arab  tribes  have  formed  settlements,  where 
they  live  in  a  state  of  independence  under  their  own 
laws.  They  lead  a  seafaring  hfe.  employing  them- 
selves in  fishing  and  gathering  pearls.  The  Boni 
Houl,  a  powerful  and  formidable  clan,  occupy  the 
barren  tract  from  Gombroon  to  Cape  Berdistan. 
They  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  valour ;  but 
their  mode  of  government  r^-nders  that  quality  of 
little  avail.  Bushire  and  Bendereek  are  chiefly  in- 
habited by  different  tribes,  originally  from  Oman. 
Their  fondness  for  the  sea  contrasts  remarkably 
with  the  disposition  of  the  Persians,  of  whom  all 
classes  have  an  unconquerable  antipathy  to  that 
element. 

The  territory  round  the  point  of  the  Gulf,  extend- 
ing from  the  Arabian  Desert  to  Endian,  is  occupied 
by  the  tribe  of  Kiab,  whose  sheik,  Solyman,  acquired 
some  celebrity  in  consequence  of  his  disputes  with 
the  English,  in  which  he  captured  some  of  their  ves- 
sels. His  principal  residence  was  Ghilan,  a  town 
near  one  of  the  outlets  of  the  Euphrates.  The 
Beni  Lam,  a  numerous  tribe,  occupy  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris  from  Korna  to  Bagdad.  They  exact  duties 
on  goods  conveyed  by  that  route,  and  sometimes 
pillage  caravans,  in  spite  of  the  chastisements  they 
occasionally  receive  from  the  Turkish  pashas.  One 
of  the  most  powerful  tribes,  both  as  to  the  extent 
of  their  territories  and  the  number  of  their  depend- 
encies, is  that  of  Montefik,  who  possess  all  tho 
country  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates  from  Korna 
to  Arja.  In  winter  they  pasture  their  cattle  in  the 
desert ;  and  in  summer,  when  the  gi-ass  is  burnt 
up,  they  remove  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  They 
trace  their  genealogy  beyond  the  era  of  Mohammed 
and  from  time  immemorial  have  been  sovereigns  of 
that  country.  Their  nobility  is  divided  into  many 
branches ;  and  Niebuhr  observes  that  the  family 
then  reigning  consisted  of  150  persons,  all  of  whom 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  157 

might  aspire  to  the  supreme  power,  and  were  in- 
trusted with  a  certain  share  of  authority.  More 
than  twenty  inferior  tribes  hved  in  a  state  of  subjec- 
tion to  them,  who  all,  in  the  event  of  war,  joined 
the  troops  of  the  principal  chief. 

The  rich  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  once  cultivated 
and  populous,  are  now  inhabited,  or  rather  desolated, 
by  wandering  Arabs  under  their  respective  sheiks, 
who,  if  they  knew  to  concentrate  their  strength, 
might  set  tlie  Ottoman  governors  at  defiance.  The 
Beni  Khasaal  are  agriculturists,  and  have  a  great 
many  petty  tribes  subject  to  them,  some  of  which 
are  again  subdivided  into  thirty  or  forty  inferior 
clans.  They  can  muster  a  force  of  2000  cavalry, 
and  a  proportionate  number  of  infantry.  The  Beni 
Temin  and  Beni  Tai  roam  between  Bagdad  and 
Mosul,  paying  a  small  annual  tribute  for  their  As- 
syrian possessions.  The  whole  extent  of  country, 
including  the  frontiers  of  Persia  almost  to  the  source 
of  the  Euphrates,  the  Hauran  or  Syrian  Desert,  Pal- 
estine, the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  the  greater  part  of 
Nejed,  and  the  central  wilderness  of  Arabia,  are  oc- 
cupied by  migratory  hordes  of  Bedouins.  To  detail 
all  the  names  and  minor  branches  of  these  tribes 
would  be  to  fill  our  pages  with  a  barbarous  nomen- 
clature. Burckhardt,  who  stands  so  honourably  dis- 
tinguished as  an  oriental  traveller,  has  not  only 
enumerated  their  various  classes,  but  furnished  a 
minute  account  of  their  local  establishments  and 
military  force,  as  well  as  of  their  extraordinary  cus- 
toms, manners,  arts,  and  institutions.* 

The  most  celebrated  and  powerful  tribe,  perhaps, 
in  the  whole  Arabian  peninsula,  is  that  of  the 
Aenezes.  In  winter  they  generally  take  up  their 
quarters  on  the  plain  between  the  Hauran  and  Hit,  a 
position  on  the  Euphrates ;  though  sometimes  they 
pass  that  limit  and  pitch  their  tents  in  Irak.    In 

*  Burckhardt's  Notes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Wahabys,  2  vols. 
Vol.  II.— 0 


15S  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

spring  they  approach  the  Syrian  frontier,  and  form 
a  line  of  encampment,  extending  from  near  Aleppo 
to  eight  days'  journey  southward  of  Damascus. 
The  whole  summer  they  spend  in  seeking  pasture 
and  water  ;  in  autumn  they  purchase  their  winter 
provision  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  return  after  the 
first  rains  into  the  interior  of  the  Desert.  They  arer 
divided  into  four  principal  clans, — the  Wold  Ali,  the 
El  Hessenne,  the  El  Rawalla,  or  more  properly  El 
Jelas,  and  the  El  Besher ;  and  these  again  are  sepa- 
rated into  numerous  inferior  bodies.  The  Sheik  of 
the  Wold  Ali  occupies  the  first  rank  among  their 
chiefs,  and  is  therefore  styled  Abu  el  Aeneze,  or  the 
Father  of  the  Aenezes,  The  Rawall-^  -^'^nerally  oc- 
cupy the  desert  from  Gebel  Shammar  towards  Jof ; 
but  they  frequently  encamp  beyond  the  Tigris  and 
the  Euphrates.  In  point  of  military  strength  they 
are  formidable,  possessing  more  horses  than  any  of 
the  Aenezes.  The  El  Besher  are  the  most  numer- 
ous of  these  grand  divisions,  and  have  their  resi- 
dence chiefly  in  Nejed. 

To  ascertain  the  population  of  each  of  the  differ- 
ent tribes  is  rendered  very  diflicult,  from  a  prejudice 
which  forbids  them  to  count  the  horsemen  ;  as  they 
believe,  like  the  Eastern  merchants,  that  whoever 
knows  the  exact  amount  of  his  wealth  may  soon  ex- 
pect to  lose  part  of  it.  Exclusive  of  those  in  Nejed, 
Burckhardt  reckons  their  forces  at  about  10,000  cav- 
alry, and  perhaps  90,000  or  100,000  camel-riders ; 
and  thinks  that  the  whole  northern  Aeneze  nation 
may  be  estimated  at  from  300,000  to  350,000  souls, 
spread  over  a  country  of  at  least  40,000  square  miles. 
Most,  though  not  all,  of  the  great  Aeneze  tribes  are 
entitled  to  passage-money  from  the  Syrian  caravans. 
The  Hessenne  take  a  yearly  surra,  or  tribute,  of  fifty 
purses  (about  lOOOZ.) ;  the  Wold  Ali  levy  to  the  same 
amount ;  while  the  Fedaan,  one  of  the  strongest  of 
these  clans,  receive  nothing  in  the  way  of  annual 
impost  from  the  pilgrims. 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  159 

The  Arabs  northward  from  Palmyra  call  them- 
selves Ahl  el  Shemal,  or  Northern  Nations  ;  a  name 
which  the  natives  of  Hejaz  apply,  from  their  relative 
position,  to  the  whole  of  the  Aeneze  tribes.     The 
El  Mauali  inhabit  the  district  near  Aleppo  and  Hamah. 
Their  emir  or  sheik  receives  an  annual  sum  from  the 
Governor  of  Aleppo,  for  which  he  protects  the  vil- 
lages of  the  pashalic  against  the  aggressions  of  the 
other  Arabs.     They  are  reckoned  treacherous  and 
faithless  ;  an  example  of  which  is  recorded  in  one  of 
their  chiefs,  who  murdered  at  a  convivial  feast  in 
his  own  tent  above  200  Aeneze  guests,  that  he  might 
get  possession  of  their  mares.     The  Hadedyein,  the 
El  Seken,  who  reckon  about  600  tents,  the  El  Berak, 
and  various  other  tribes,  wander  in  that  neighbour- 
hood.    The   mountains  from  Homs  towards   Pal- 
myra, the   extensive  territory  of  the  Hauran,  the 
plains  of  Leja  and  Jolan,  are  traversed  by  numerous 
hordes,  who  are  tributary  to  the  Pasha  of  Damascus ; 
though  circumstances  often  induce  them  to  throw  off 
their  allegiance,  and  appropriate  to  their  own  use 
the  miri,  or  tax  from  the  peasants,  and  other  dues 
they  are  employed  to  collect.     The  Beni  Sakkar,  a 
tribe  of  free  Arabs,  are  celebrated  for  their  courage 
and  their  robberies.     They  have  a  force  of  about 
500  horsemen,  who  find  constant  occupation  in  plun- 
der,  or  in   defending  their  possessions   from   the 
inroads  of  the  Aenezes.     The  Arabs  of  Belka,  whose 
camps  extend  to  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  comprise  about  forty  small  tribes,  amountmg 
in  all  to  between  3000  and  4000  tents.     They  drive 
cattle  for  sale  to  Jerusalem;  and  their  great  sheik 
pays  an  annual  tribute  of  2000  sheep  to  the  Pasha 
of  Damascus.     The.  plains  about  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Lake   of  Tiberias  are  inhabited  by  the  Ghour 
Arabs.     The  Ahl  el  Kebly,  or  Southern  Nations, 
comprehend  the  various  tribes  that  dwell  south  of 
Palestine,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea 
Gebel  Shera  is  peopled  by  the  Hejaje,  who  num- 


160  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

ber  about  400  horsemen.  The  Howeytat,  the  Mo- 
wali,  the  Omran,  Debourt,  Bedoul,  Hekouk,  and 
various  others,  occupy  the  desert  from  Suez  to 
Akaba.  The  Omran  are  a  strong  clan,  and  of  very 
independent  spirit.  Their  frequent  depredations 
render  them  objects  of  terror  to  the  pilgrims  pro- 
ceeding to  Mecca,  who  are  under  the  necessity  of 
passing  through  their  territories.  Five  tribes,  called 
the  Towara,  or  Arabs  of  Tor,  inhabit  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai ;  these  are  the  Sowaleha,  the  Mezeyne,  the 
Aleygat,  the  Tayaha,  and  the  Terabein,  who  feed 
their  flocks  in  the  Petr^ean  deserts.  They  maintain 
very  little  intercourse  with  their  eastern  neighbours, 
and  can  muster  together  a  force  of  more  than  600 
matchlocks.  In  dry  seasons  they  occasionally  ap- 
proach towards  Gaza  or  Hebron  ;  and  some  have  a 
caravan  called  Kheleit,  of  more  than  4000  camels, 
which  sets  out  every  year  to  Cairo,  where  they  pur- 
chase wheat,  barley,  and  articles  of  dress. 

Most  of  these,  with  various  other  branches,  called 
the  Sherkyeh  Arabs,  have  colonized  the  western 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  from  Suez  as  far  as  Nubia. 
During  the  time  of  the  Mamlouk  reign  in  Egypt, 
they  might  be  said  to  have  been  masters  of  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  country.  They  exacted  tribute 
from  the  peasants,  and  engrossed  a  great  share  of 
the  transport-trade.  The  Maazy  sometimes  pasture 
their  cattle  near  the  Nile,  but  generally  reside  in  the 
mountains.  From  500  to  600  horsemen  constitute 
the  utmost  force  of  all  the  Sherkyeh  tribes.  Some 
years  ago,  if  their  own  reports  are  to  be  credited, 
they  could  muster  at  least  3000 ;  but  their  numbers 
have  been  considerably  reduced  by  their  wars  with 
the  Pasha  of  Egypt,  who  at  present  levies  a  tribute 
on  them,  and  observes  their  movements  with  so 
nuich  vigilance  that  they  are  not  even  permitted  to 
make  war  upon  each  other, — the  most  galling  re- 
Ktriction  under  which  an  Arab  can  be  placed. 
,     On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Gulf,  the  Bedouins 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  •     161 

extend  from  the  deserts  of  Akaba  to  the  northern 
confines  of  Yemen.  The  Beni  Okaba  and  the  El 
Bily  possess  the  small  town  of  Moilah  and  the 
neighbouring  country.  The  Hateym  are  one  of  the 
most  widely  dispersed  of  all  these  wandering  hordes. 
In  Syria,  in  Lower  and  Upper  Egypt,  along  the  Te- 
hama, in  Nejed  and  Mesopotamia,  encampments  of 
them  are  always  to  be  found.  They  are  despised  as 
a  mean  race,  with  whom  the  other  Bedouins  refuse 
to  intermarry ;  and  for  one  man  to  call  another  a 
Hateymi  is  considered  an  unpardonable  insult.  The 
great  tribe  of  the  Jeheyne  inhabit  the  country  round 
Yembo,  and  constitute  the  chief  portion  of  its  popu- 
lation. They  are  much  addicted  to  war,  and  can 
raise  a  force  amounting  to  8000  matchlocks.  They 
acknowledge  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the  Sheriff  of 
Mecca,  and,  like  all  the  other  tribes  southward  of 
Akaba,  are  entitled  to  the  surra  or  passage-money 
from  the  Egyptian  pilgrims. 

The  Beni  Shammar  inhabit  the  mountains  of  that 
name,  and  are  mortal  enemies  to  the  Aenezes.  They 
are  subdivided  into  numerous  branches,  some  of 
which  have  settlements  in  Irak,  and  make  fre- 
quent plundering  incursions  into  the  Hauran.  The 
greater  part  of  the  country  extending  from  Kasym 
to  Medina  is  occupied  by  the  Beni  Harb,  who  have 
also  possessions  on  the  coast  from  Yembo  down  to 
Jidda  and  Leith.  In  summer  they  migrate  to  Pales- 
tine and  Mount  Lebanon,  on  the  summits  of  which 
they  pitch  their  tents  and  feed  their  cattle.  From 
the  aggregate  of  this  formidable  race,  there  might 
perhaps  be  reckoned  a  body  comprising  between 
30,000  and  40,000  men  armed  with  matchlocks ;  and 
such  is  the  numerical  strength  of  their  main  tribes, 
that  each  of  them  is  rather  to  be  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinct clan.  Among  their  branches  extending  to  the 
east  and  south  of  Medina,  are  the  Mezeyne,  the 
Beni  Safar,  Beni  Ammer,  El  Hamede,  Beni  Salem, 
Sobh,  El  Owf,  and  Dwy  Daher.     The  Sheik  of  El 

02 


162  CIVIL  histokv  and 

Hamede  is  at  present  considered  as  chief  of  all  the 
Beni  Harb  ;  to  the  Sobh  belong  the  town  and  district 
of  Bedr,  where  a  market  is  held,  at  which  some  of 
them  are  wont  to  sit  during  the  whole  day  in  their 
small  shops,  and  in  the  evening  they  mount  their 
camels  and  return  to  their  famihes  in  the  Desert. 

The  principal  station  of  the  Zebeyde  tribe  is  to 
the  north  of  Jidda  ;  but,  as  their  country  is  in  gene- 
ral poor,  they  are  obliged  to  seek  for  other  means 
of  subsistence  than  what  can  be  derived  from  pas- 
ture alone.  Many  of  them  are  active  fishermen, 
and  serve  as  sailors  and  pilots  to  ships  navigating 
the  Red  Sea.  A  certain  number  have  established 
themselves  in  this  capacity  on  the  Shut  El  Arab 
below  Bagdad.  In  consequence  of  their  commer- 
cial pursuits  the  other  Harbs  look  upon  them  with 
disdain. 

The  excellent  pasture-  ground  about  Taif,  and 
the  chain  of  mountains  eastward,  are  inhabited  by 
the  Ateybe,  who  formerly  were  the  inveterate  ene- 
mies of  the  Harb  tribe,  and  could  muster  a  force  of 
from  6000  to  10,000  matchlocks.  The  Lahyan  and 
other  Bedouin  tribes  about  Mecca  are  all  poor,  owing 
to  the  sterility  of  the  soil  and  the  high  price  of  com- 
modities. The  Beni  Fahem  regularly  supply  the 
city  with  charcoal  and  sheep.  Of  the  once  cele- 
brated Koreish,  only  300  matchlock-men  now  re- 
main, who  encamp  about  Mount  Arafat.  They  are 
but  little  esteemed  by  the  other  Bedouins,  and  derive 
their  chief  subsistence  from  the  charity  of  the  pil- 
grims, or  the  price  of  the  milk  and  butter  which  they 
carry  to  Mecca.  The  Adouan,  an  ancient  and  power- 
ful tribe,  have  been  nearly  exterminated  by  a  series 
of  continual  wars  with  their  neighbours.  '  Many  of 
the  other  tribes  in  these  mountainous  regions  were 
known  in  Arabian  history  prior  to  the  era  of  Mo- 
hammed ;  such  as  the  Hodhail,  who  muster  1000 
matchlocks,  and  are  reputed  the  best  marksmen  in 
the  whole  country ;  the  Thakif,  who  compose  half 


GOVERNMENT  OF    ARABIA.  163 

the  inhabitants  of  Taif ;  the  Beni  Sofian,  Beni  Ra- 
biah,  Beni  Abs,  Beni  Kelb,  and  Beni  Asyr,  who  can 
assemble  15,000  men-at-arms.  The  Beni  Saad  and 
Beni  Kahtan  are  famous  from  the  most  remote  anti- 
quity ;  the  former  being  the  tribe  among  whom  the 
Prophet  himself  was  educated,  and  the  latter  es- 
teemed more  wealthy  in  camels  than  any  Bedouins 
of  the  Eastern  desert.  A  man  is  reckoned  poor 
who  has  only  forty ;  and  some  even  of  the  middle 
.classes  possess  150.  The  Abyde,  the  Senhan,  Wa- 
daa,  Sahar,  Begoum,  Hamadan,  Shomran,  and  Zoh- 
ran  border  on  the  territory  of  the  Imam  of  Sanaa. 

Among  all  these  nomadic  tribes  one  form  of  gov- 
ernment seems  to  prevail ;  and  though  at  first  view 
it  may  not  seem  calculated  to  secure  that  grand 
object  of  legislation — the  protection  of  the  weak 
against  the  strong, — yet  from  the  experience  of 
ages,  during  which  their  political  state  has  not  suf- 
fered the  smallest  change,  it  appears  that  their  civil 
institutions  are  well  adapted  to  their  habits  and 
mode  of  hfe.  Every  tribe  has  its  chief  sheik,  or 
emir  as  he  is  sometimes  styled ;  and  every  camp 
(for  a  tribe  often  comprises  many)  is  headed  by  a 
sheik,  or  at  least  by  an  Arab  of  some  consideration. 
All  the  sheiks,  however,  that  belong  to  the  same 
tribe,  acknowledge  the  common  chief,  who  is  called 
the  sheik  of  sheiks.  The  dignity  of  grand  sheik  is 
hereditary  in  a  certain  family,  but  is  not  confined  to 
the  order  of  primogeniture  ;  on  his  death  the  inferior 
sheiks  choose  his  successor,  more  for  his  personal 
qualities  than  from  any  regard  to  age  or  lineal  suc- 
cession. This  right  of  election,  with  other  privi- 
leges, obliges  the  object  of  their  choice  to  treat  them 
rather  as  associates  than  subjects  ;  and  the  only 
ceremony  attending  the  election  is  the  simple  an- 
nouncement to  him,  that  henceforth  he  is  to  be 
regarded  as  head  of  the  tribe.  Disputes  occasion- 
ally arise  in  choosing  between  a  son,  a  brother,  or 
some  other  distinguished  relation,  and  each  party 


164  CIVIL    HISTORY   AND 

adheres  to  its  own  favourite.  A  sheik  is  sometimes 
deposed,  and  a  more  brave  or  generous  man  elected 
in  his  place.  He  has  no  actual  authority  over  the 
individuals  of  his  tribe  beyond  what  he  derives  from 
his  superior  abilities ;  and  though  they  may  pay 
deference  to  his  advice,  they  would  spurn  his  com- 
mands. 

The  real  government  of  the  Bedouins  maybe  said 
to  consist  in  the  separate  strength  of  their  different 
families,  who  constitute  so  many  armed  bodies,  ever 
ready  to  punish  or  retaliate  aggression ;  and  it  is 
this  mutual  counterpoise  alone  that  maintains  peace 
in  the  tribe.  The  most  powerful  Aeneze  chief  dares 
not  inflict  a  trifling  punishment  on  the  poorest  of  his 
subjects,  without  incurrfng  the  risk  of  mortal  ven- 
geance from  the  injured  party.  The  sheiks,  there- 
fore, exercise  a  very  precarious  sway,  and  must  not 
be  regarded  as  princes  of  the  Desert, — a  title  with 
which  some  travellers  have  dignified  them.  Their 
prerogative  consists  in  leading  their  troops  against 
the  enemy,  in  conducting  public  negotiations,  and 
superintending  the  general  economy  of  the  encamp- 
ment ;  and  even  these  privileges  are  much  limited. 
The  sheik  cannot  declare  war  or  conclude  peace 
without  consulting  the  chief  men  of  his  tribe  ;  if  he 
wish  to  break  up  the  camp,  he  must  previously  ask 
the  opinion  and  concurrence  of  his  people ;  and  if 
the  spot  which  he  fixes  for  the  new  encampment 
does  not  please  them,  they  pitch  their  own  tents  at 
some  distance,  or  join  the  camp  of  another  tribe. 

The  sheik  derives  no  yearly  income  from  his 
subjects  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  is  obliged  to  support 
his  title  by  considerable  disbursements,  in  the  way 
of  presents  to  his  friends,  and  hospitality  to  strangers. 
His  means  of  defraying  these  expenses  are  the  sums 
which  he  levies  in  tribute  and  plunder,  or  obtains 
from  the  pilgrim-caravans.  He  acts  in  a  legal  as 
well  as  in  a  political  capacity ;  but  in  cases  of  liti- 
gation he  has  not  the  power  to  execute  any  sen- 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  165 

tence.  The  Arab  can  only  be  persuaded  by  his  own 
relations  ;  and  if  they  fail,  war  commences  between 
the  two  families  and  all  their  kindred  respectively. 
The  parties  sometimes  agree  to  abide  by  his  deci- 
sion, or  to  choose  umpires ;  but  they  cannot  on  any 
occasion  be  compelled  to  yield,  though  an  adversary 
may  be  cited  before  the  cadi  or  judge.  The  fees  of 
this  officer  are  considerable,  and  always  paid  by  the 
gainer  of  the  cause,  never  by  the  loser. 

In  cases  where  difficulties  occur  which  baffle  his 
powers  of  sagacity  to  unravel  or  decide,  the  cadi 
sends  the  litigating  parties  before  the  mebesshae,  or 
chief  judge,  who  subjects  them  to  the  trial  by  or- 
deal, similar  to  that  employed  formerly  in  Europe. 
Should  his  endeavours  to  reconcile  the  disputants 
prove  vain,  he  directs  a  fire  to  be  kindled  in  his  pres- 
ence ;  he  then  produces  a  long  iron  spoon  (used  by 
the  Arabs  in  roasting  coffee),  and  having  made  it 
red-hot,  he  takes  it  from  the  fire  and  licks  with  his 
tongue  the  upper  end  of  the  spoon  on  both  sides 
After  this  ceremony  he  replaces  it  in  the  fire,  and 
commands  the  accused  person  first  to  wash  his 
mouth  with  water,  and  then  to  lick  the  spoon  as  he 
had  done.  If  the  accused  escape  without  injury  to 
his  tongue  he  is  presumed  to  be  innocent ;  other- 
wise, he  loses  his  cause.  Persons  have  been  known 
to  lick  the  heshaa,  as  it  is  called,  above  twenty  times 
without  the  slightest  harm.  In  cases  of  manslaugh- 
ter or  murder,  where  the  accused  denies  the  charge, 
appeal  is  always  made  to  this  tribunal. 

Corporal  punishments  are  unknown,  pecuniary 
fines  being  always  awarded,  of  whatever  nature  the 
crime  may  be.  An  insulting  expression,  a  blow 
according  to  its  violence  or  the  part  struck,  the  in- 
fliction of  a  wound  from  which  even  a  single  drop  of 
blood  flows,  have  each  their  respective  fines  ascer- 
tained. Calling  a  man  a  dog  incurs  the  penalty  of 
a  sheep ;  a  wound  on  the  shoulder,  three  camels. 
The  forfeit  for  killing  a  watch-dog  is  remarkable : 


166  CIVIL    HISTORY    AND 

the  dead  animal  is  held  up  by  the  tail,  so  that  its 
nose  just  touches  the  ground ;  its  length  is  then 
measured,  and  a  stick  of  equal  dimensions  is  fixed 
into  the  earth.  Over  this  the  delinquent  is  obliged 
to  pour  as  much  wheat  as  will  wholly  cover  it.  The 
wheat  is  the  fine  due  to  the  owner  of  the  dog.  The 
evidence  of  a  witness  may  be  given  verbally  or  in 
writing ;  and  where  there  are  none,  the  accused 
party  is  acquitted  on  solemnly  attesting  his  inno- 
cence by  an  oath. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  judicial  oaths  in  use 
among  the  Arabs:  one  of  the  most  common  is  to 
lay  hold  with  one  hand  of  the  wa'sat  or  middle  tent- 
pole,  and  swear  "  by  the  life  of  this  tent  and  its 
owners."  The  "  oath  of  the  wood"  is  more  serious, 
and  consists  in  taking  a  piece  of  stick  or  stone,  and 
swearing  "  by  God  and  the  life  of  him  who  caused  it 
to  be  green  and  dried  up."  The  "  oath  of  the  cross 
lines"  is  only  used  on  very  important  occasions,-— 
suppose  stolen  goods,  or  where  the  fact  of  the  guilt 
cannot  be  proved  by  witnesses.  The  accuser  leads 
the  suspected  person  a  distance  from  the  camp  ;  and 
then  with  his  sekin  or  crooked  knife  draws  on  the 
sand  a  large  circle  with  several  cross  lines  inside. 
The  defendant  is  obliged  to  put  his  right  foot,  some- 
times both  feet,  within  this  magic  ring,  the  accuser 
doing  the  same,  and  charging  him  to  repeat  the  fol- 
lowing words  : — "  By  God,  and  in  God,  and  through 
God,  I  did  not  take  it,  and  it  is  not  in  my  posses- 
sion." To  make  this  ceremony  still  more  solemn, 
a  camel's  udder-bag  (shemle)  and  an  ant  (nemle)  are 
placed  together  within  the  circle,  indicating  that 
the  accused  swears  by  the  hope  of  never  being  de- 
prived of  milk  and  winter  provision.  It  is  called 
"  the  oath  of  the  shemle  and  nemle  ;"  and  to  swear 
falsely  by  it  would  for  ever  disgrace  an  Arab, 

Generally  speaking,  the  political  institutions  of 
the  Bedouins  may  be  traced  to  that  natural  authority 
which  the  primitive  fathers  of  mankind  exercised 


GOVERNMENT    OF    ARABIA.  167 

over  their  families,  and  which  viewed  the ,  duty  of 
obedience  as  founded  less  on  any  legal  obligations 
than  upon  the  opinion  of  benevolence  in  the  ruler. 
The  office  of  their  sheiks  and  elders,  the  maxims 
which  they  observe  in  war  and  in  negotiating  peace, 
must  have  arisen  from  the  common  wants  and  the 
common  consent  of  the  tribes.     They  are  so  simple 
— so  well  adapted  to  the  spirit  of  their  free  and 
wandering  hfe — that  every  nation  not  yet  reduced 
to  slavery,  if  thrown  at  large  upon  this  wide  desert, 
might  be  expected  to  observe  the  same  laws  and 
usages.     The  case,  however,  is  very  different  with 
their  civil  institutions ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  imagine 
how  so  ma""""  arbitrary  regulations  in  their  social 
economy — so  inany  nice  distinctions  in  estimating 
the  price  of  wounds  and  insults — could  have  sprung 
up  by  chance,  or  originated  in  the  gradual  improve- 
ment of  a  wild  and  warlike  multitude.     Their  politi- 
cal code  differs  from  that  most  generally  prevalent 
throughout  the  rest  of  the  Moslem  world,  and  must 
have  been  the  work  of  a  legislator  older  than  thft 
revolution  achieved  by  Mohammed.     The  Prophet 
Obliged  the  Bedouin  Arabs  to  renounce  their  idola 
try,  and  to  acknowledge  the  unity  of  a  Divine  Crea  ■ 
tor ;  but  he  seems  to  have  been  less  successful  iit 
forcing  his  laws  upon  his  own  nation  than  in  estab 
lishing  them  with  their  assistance  in  the  surrounding 
countries. 


168  HEJAZ 


CHAPTER  V. 

HEJAZj  OR  HOLY  LAND  OF  THE  MOSLEM. 

Government  of  Hejaz — Succession  and  Power  of  the  Sheriffs-^ 
Reign  of  Ghaleb — Sheriff  FamiHes  at  Mecca — Cities  and 
Towns  in  Hejaz — Jidda — Yembo — Taif— Mecca — Descrip- 
tion of  the  BeituUah  or  Grand  Temple — The  Court  and  Col- 
onnades—The Kaaba— The  Black  Stone— The  Tob  or  Cover' 
ing  of  the  Kaaba — The  Zemzem  Well — Servants  and  Reve- 
nues of  the  Mosque — Inhabitants  of  Mecca — Their  Character, 
Domestic  Manners,  and  Employments — Low  State  of  Arts  and 
Learning  in  Hejaz. 

The  g-overnnient  of  Hejaz,  which  includes  the 
territories  of  Medina,  Jidda,  Yembo,  Taif,  and  Gon- 
fode,  belongs  to  the  Sheriff  of  Mecca.  The  honour 
attached  even  to  a  nominal  authority  over  the  holy 
cities  had  led,  in  former  tunes,  to  frequent  disputes 
between  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  the  sultans  of  Egypt^ 
and  the  imams  of  Yemen  ;  although  the  possession 
of  that  dignity,  instead  of  increasing  their  income, 
obliged  them  to  incur  great  expenses.  The  sole 
benefit  they  derived  was  the  right  of  clothing  the 
Kaaba,  and  of  having  their  names  inserted  in  the 
prayers  of  the  mosque.  The  supremacy  of  Egypt 
over  Mecca,  so  firmly  established  from  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  transferred  by  Selim  I. 
to  the  sultans  of  Constantinople ;  in  whose  hands, 
with  the  interruption  of  a  few  years,  it  has  since 
continued.  The  sheriff  was  invested  annually  with 
a  pelisse  from  the  grand  seignior,  from  whom  he 
held  his  ofhce ;  and  in  tlie  Turkish  ceremonial  he 
was  ranked  among  the  first  pashas  of  the  empire. 
When  the  Porte  became  unable,  even  by  means  of 
large  armies,  to  secure  its  command  over  that  coun- 


GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    SHERIFFS.  169 

try,  these  subordinate  nilers  threw  off  their  depend- 
ence ;  although  they  still  called  themselves  the 
servants  of  the  sultan,  prayed  for  him  in  the  great 
mosque,  and  received  the  wonted  investiture. 

The  succession  to  the  government  of  this  prov- 
ince, like  that  of  the  Bedouin  sheiks,  is  not  heredi- 
tary ;  though  it  usually  remained  in  the  same  tribe 
so  long  as  the  power  of  that  tribe  preponderated 
The  election  was  always  made  from  one  of  the 
sheriff  families  descended  from  the  Prophet,  settled 
in  Hejaz.  They  were  divided  into  various  subordi- 
nate branches,  of  which  sometimes  one  sometimes 
another  enjoyed  the  sovereignty  of  the  holy  cities. 
There  were  no  ceremonies  of  installation  or  oaths 
of  allegiance.  The  new  governor  received  compli- 
mentary visits ;  his  band  played  before  the  door, — 
an  honour  significant  of  royalty  ;  and  his  name  was 
inserted  in  the  public  prayers.  Succession  rarely 
took  place  without  disputes  ;  but  the  contests  were 
in  general  neither  sanguinary  nor  of  long  duration. 
The  rivals  submitted,  or  rather  withdrew  in  gloomy 
silence  ;  and  atonement  for  the  blood  shed  on  both 
sides  was  duly  made  by  fines  paid  to  the  relations 
of  the  slain. 

The  result  of  these  poKtical  quarrels  was  attended 
with  bad  consequences  to  the  community ;  for 
though  they  checked  the  power  of  the  reigning 
sheriff,  they  weakened  the  state  by  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  wars,  feuds,  and  intestine  broils. 
The  vicissitudes  of  fortune  to  which  they  gave  rise, 
and  the  arts  of  popularity  which  the  chiefs  were 
obiged  to  employ,  gave  to  the  government  of  Hejaz 
a  character  different  from  that  of  most  other  coun- 
tries in  the  East.  None  of  that  haughty  ceremony 
was  observed  which  draws  a  line  of  distinction  be- 
tween oriental  sovereigns  or  vicegerents  and  their 
subjects.  The  court  of  the  sheriff  was  small,  and 
almost  entirely  devoid  of  pomp.  He  was  addressed 
by  the  plain  title  of  seidna  (our  lord),  or  sadetkum 

Vol.  n.— P 


170  HEJAZ. 

(your  highness) ;  and  the  meanest  of  the  peopld 
considered  it  no  violation  of  etiquette  to  represent 
their  grievances  personally  and  boldly  though  re- 
spectfully to  demand  redress.  No  large  body  of 
regular  troops  was  kept  up,  except  a  few  Mamlouks 
or  Georgians  as  a  body-guard  ;  and  when  war  was 
determired  upon,  he  summoned  his  adherents  and 
partisans  to  meet  the  emergency ;  but  they  received 
no  regular  pay. 

The  dress  of  this  great  functionary  is  the  same 
as  that  of  all  the  chiefs  of  the  sheriff  families  at 
Mecca,  consisting  usually  of  a  silk  gown,  over  which 
is  thrown  a  white  abba  of  the  finest  manufacture 
of  El  Hassa ;  the  head  is  enveloped  in  a  Cashmere 
shawl,  and  the  feet  in  sandals,  or  yellow  slippers. 
When  he  rides  out  on  state  occasions,  he  holds 
in  his  hand  a  short  slender  stick,  called  metrek ; 
and  over  him  a  horseman  carries  the  umbrella  or 

canopy. 

To  present   an  account  of  the  sheriffs  of  Mecca 
were  only  to  describe  the  petty  wars  of  rival  fac- 
tions.    Burckhardt  shrank  from  the  task  of  tracing 
their  intricate  pedigrees,  and  the  historical  notice 
of  them  given  by  D'Ohsson  is  chargeable  with  sev 
eral  errors.     About  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
the  sovereignty  was  held  by  Mesaad ;  and  after  hi* 
death  (in  1770)  it  was  seized  by  Hossein,  the  leadei- 
of  an  adverse  party,  but  again  returned  to  his  fam 
ily  in  the  person  of  Serour,  who  slew  his  rival  in 
battle  (1773),  and  whose  name  is  still  venerated  in 
Hejaz  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  courage  and 
sagacity,  which  were  frequently  called  into  exercise 
in  repressing  the  turbulence  and  depredations  of  th(» 
inferior  chiefs.     His  death,  which  happened  in  1786 
was  bewailed  as  a  public  calamity,  and  his  remains 
were  followed  to  the  grave  by  the  whole  population 
of  Mecca.     Two  of  his  brothers  aspired  to  the  su 
preme  power,  of  which  Abdelmain  kept  possession 
for  five  days  only,  when  the  younger  brother,  Gha 


GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    SHERIFFS.  171 

leb,  by  his  superior  skill  and  intrigue,  and  by  the 
great  reputation  which  he  had  acquired  for  wisdom 
and  valour,  supplanted  him  in  the  government. 

During  the  first  years  of  his  reign  the  slaves  and 
eunuchs  began  to  indulge  in  their  former  disorderly 
behaviour  and  acts  of  oppression;  but  the  new 
sheriff  soon  freed  himself  from  their  influence,  and 
acquired  at  length  a  firmer  authority  over  Hejaz  than 
any  of  his  predecessors  had  ever  enjoyed.  His 
nephews,  the  sons  of  Serour,  attempted  to  wrest 
from  him  the  reins  of  power,  but  without  success. 
His  government,  on  the  whole,  was  lenient  and 
cautious,  although  his  extreme  avarice  betrayed 
him  into  many  acts  of  individual  oppression.  The 
whole  of  his  private  household  consisted  of  fifty  or 
sixty  servants  and  officers,  and  as  many  slaves  and 
eunuchs.  His  harem  contained  a  small  establish- 
ment of  wives,  being  about  two  dozen  of  Abyssinians, 
and  twice  that  number  of  female  attendants  to  wait 
upon  them  and  nurse  their  children.  When  in  the 
full  enjoyment  of  his  power,  he  possessed  a  con- 
siderable influence  over.the  Bedouin  tribes  of  Hejaz, 
but  without  any  direct  authority. 

The  income  of  the  sheriff  is  derived  chiefly  from 
the  customs  paid  at  Jidda  and  Yembo,  which  were 
much  increased  by  Ghaleb,  who  had  also  engrossed 
a  large  share  of  the  commerce  to  himself,  having 
eighty  dows  constantly  engaged  in  the  coflTee  trade. 
He  also  levied  a  tax  upon  all  cattle  and  provisions, 
carried  either  to  the  coast  for  exportation,  or  into 
the  interior  of  the  country.  The  other  branches  of 
his  revenues  were  the  profits  realized  from  the  sale 
of  provisions  at  Mecca ;  a  capitation-tax  on  all  Per- 
sian hajjis ;  presents,  both  gratuitous  and  compul- 
sory ;  part  of  the  money  sent  from  Constantinople 
for  the  use  of  the  temple  ;  and  rents  to  a  consider- 
able amount  from  landed  property,  consisting  of 
gardens  around  Taif,  and  plantations  in  many  of  the 
lieighbouring  wadis ;  besides  houses  and  caravansa» 


172  HEJAZ. 

ries  at  Jidda,  which  he  let  out  to  foreigners.  Burck- 
hardt  calculates  the  annual  receipts  of  Ghaleb, 
during  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  to  have  amounted 
to  about  350,000/.  sterling ;  but  when  the  Wahabees 
occupied  Hejaz,  it  probably  did  not  exceed  half  that 
sum.  The  maintenance  of  his  household  did  not 
perhaps  require  more  than  20,000/.  per  annum. 
Tue  small  force  he  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  did 
not  exceed  500  men,  whose  pay  was  from  eight  to 
twelve  dollars  per  month.  During  war,  the  increase 
of  his  army  to  3000  or  4000  troops  rendered  some 
additional  expense  necessary ;  but  there  is  reason 
to  conclude,  that  never  at  any  period  of  his  power 
did  this  governor  live  up  to  the  full  amount  of  his 
income.  The  reign  of  this  sheriff  has  acquired  con- 
siderable importance  in  Europe  from  its  connexion 
with  the  history  of  the  Wahabees ;  and  his  name 
will  again  be  necessarily  introduced  in  our  notice  of 
these  fanatical  warriors. 

Of  the  sheriff  families  at  Mecca,  who  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  former  Mamlouks  or  janizaries  of 
Arabia,  only  a  small  number  (Burckhardt  enumerates 
twelve)  now  remain,  who  serve  as  auxiliaries  under 
their  respective  chiefs,  either  in  the  armies  of  their 
friends  or  their  enemies.  Their  great  versatility 
of  character  and  conduct  has  destroyed  their  credit 
for  honesty ;  and  this  popular  distrust  is  increased 
by  the  suspicion  that  they  belong  to  the  heterodox 
sect  of  the  Zaidites ;  while  the  Meccawees  follow 
the  doctrines  of  Shafei.  In  personal  appearance 
and  gallant  bearing  they  surpass  most  other  tribes 
of  their  countrymen.  Those  whom  Burckhardt  had 
an  opportunity  of  seeing  were  distinguished  by  fine 
manly  countenances,  strongly  expressive  of  noble 
extraction  ;  they  had  all  the  bold  and  frank  manners 
of  the  Bedouins ;  were  fond  of  popularity ;  and  en- 
dowed with  an  innate  pride  which,  in  their  own 
eyes,  set  them  far  above  the  Sultan  of  Constantino- 
ple. They  form  a  distinct  class,  into  which  no  for- 
eigners are  admitted.     They  are  spread  over  several 


GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    SHERIFFS.  173 

other  parts  of  Arabia,  and  acknowledge  most  of  the 
sheriffs  of  Yemen  and  Hejaz  as  their  distant  rela- 
tions. They  delight  in  arms  and  civil  broils ;  and 
have  a  singular  custom,  which  was  practised  in  the 
days  of  Mohammed,  of  sending  every  male  child 
eight  days  after  its  birth  to  the  tent  of  some  neigh- 
bouring Bedouin,  where  he  is  brought  up  with  the 
children  for  eight  or  ten  years,  or  till  he  is  able  to 
manage  a  mare,  when  the  father  takes  him  home. 
During  the  whole  of  this  period,  except  a  short  visit 
in  his  sixth  month,  the  boy  never  sees  his  parents, 
nor  enters  the  town  ;  nor  is  he  in  any  instance  left 
longer  than  thirty  days  after  his  birth  in  the  hands 
of  his  mother.  By  this  hardy  education  he  becomes 
familiar  with  all  the  perils  and  vicissitudes  of  the 
desert  life ;  his  body  is  inured  to  fatigue  and  priva- 
tion ;  and  he  acquires  an  influence  among  the 
Bedouins  which  afterward  becomes  of  much  im- 
portance to  him.  He  acquires  for  his  foster-parents 
ill  the  affection  of  relationship  ;  and  sometimes  the 
sheriff  boys  steal  away  from  their  own  homes  to 
rejoin  the  friends  and  associates  of  their  infancy. 

At  Mecca,  and  in  every  town  throughout  Hejaz, 
justice  is  administered  by  the  cadi.  The  fees  are 
enormous,  and  generally  swallow  up  one-fourth  of 
the  sum  in  litigation.  The  most  barefaced  acts  of 
corruption,  bribery,  and  oppression  occur  daily  in 
the  Mehkames  (halls  of  judgment),  and  these  dis- 
orders are  countenanced  by  the  Turkish  sultan,  who 
had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  paying  the  judges  100 
purses  per  annum  out  of  his  treasury,  in  consider- 
ation of  the  emoluments  he  received  from  the  ofl!ice. 
In  lawsuits  of  importance,  the  muftis  of  the  four 
orthodox  sects  have  considerable  influence  on  the 
decisions. 

Within  the  dominions  of  the  sheriff  are  compre- 
hended, as  has  already  been  noticed,  the  cities  of 
Mecca,  Medina,  Yembo,  Taif,  Jidda,  Gonfode,  Hali, 
and  several  other  places  less  considerable. 


174  HEJAZ. 

Jidda,  views  of  which  are  given  by  Head  and 
Niebuhr,  is  described  by  travellers  as  a  pretty  town, 
built  upon  a  slightly-rising  ground,  the  lower  part  of 
which  is  washed  by  the  sea.  It  extends  along  the 
shore  more  than  half  a  mile.  On  the  land-side  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  in  a  tolerable  state  of  repair, 
but  of  no  strength.  Its  watch-towers  are  mounted 
with  a  few  rusty  guns,  one  of  which  is  famous  over 
all  the  Red  Sea,  and  may  be  called  the  Mons  Meg  of 
Arabia,  as  it  is  said  to  carry  a  ball  of  100  lbs.  weight, 
A  ditch  ten  feet  wide  and  twelve  deep  is  carried 
along  its  whole  extent ;  and  there  is  a  battery,  which 
guards  the  entrance  from  the  sea  and  commands  the 
harbour.  The  approach  from  the  shore  is  by  the 
quays,  where  small  boats  discharge  the  cargoes  of 
the  large  ships ;  the  latter  being  obliged  to  anchor 
in  the  roadstead,  at  the  distance  of  two  miles.  The 
entrance  is  shut  every  evening  at  sunset ;  and  thus, 
during  night,  all  communication  is  prevented  be- 
tween the  town  and  the  shipping. 

On  the  land-side  are  two  gates  leading  to  Mecca 
and  Medina ;  opposite  these  the  ditch  is  filled  with 
-rubbish,  which  serves  instead  of  a  drawbridge.  The 
'suburbs  contain  only  huts  formed  of  reeds,  rushes, 
or  brushwood,  inhabited  by  peasants,  labourers,  and 
Bedouins.  The  streets  of  the  town  are  unpaved, 
but,  on  the  whole,  regular,  spacious,  and  airy.  The 
houses  are  two  or  three  stories  high,  handsome,  and 
generally  built  of  large  blocks  of  very  fine  madre- 
pore -,  though  uniformity  of  architecture  is  not  ob- 
served. There  is  usually  a  spacious  hall  at  the 
entrance,  where  strangers  are  received,  and  which, 
during  the  heat  of  the  day,  is  cooler  than  any  other 
part  of  the  house,  the  floor  being  kept  continually 
wet.  There  the  master,  with  all  his  male  attend- 
ants, hired  servants,  and  slaves,  may  be  seen  at 
noon  enjoying  the  siesta.  The  doorways  are  ele- 
gantly arched,  and  covered  with  zigzag  fretwork 
ornaments  carved  in  the  stone.    The  windows  are 


JIDDA.  175 

siumerous,  sometimes  large  sometimes  small,  with 
wooden  shutters.  The  bow-windows  exhibit  a  great 
display  of  joiners'  and  carpenters'  work,  which  is 
often  painted  with  the  most  gaudy  colours.  Travel- 
lers have  been  struck  with  the  resemblance  between 
the  arches  at  Jidda  and  those  in  the  Enghsh  cathe- 
drals ;  some  being  pointed,  like  the  Gothic ;  others 
flat,  and  retiring  one  within  another,  like  the  Saxon. 
The  most  respectable  inhabitants  have  their  resi- 
dence near  the  sea,  where  a  long  street  running 
parallel  to  the  shore  appears  lined  with  shops,  and 
presents  many  khans  constantly  and  exclusively 
frequented  by  the  merchants.  The  pasha's  palace 
is  delightfully  situated  on  the  water's  edge  ;  yet  the 
edifice  itself  is  rather  paltry  than  handsome.  There 
are  many  small  mosques,  and  two  of  considerable 
magnitude.  Water  is  scarce  ;  bat  in  all  the  public 
places  there  are  persons  who  sell  it  in  glasses,  and 
have  near  them  a  small  chafing-dish,  in  which  they 
burn  incense  and  aromatics  ;  by  this  means  the  air 
is  constantly  perfumed.  The  same  custom  is  ob- 
served in  the  khans,  shops,  and  even  private  houses. 
The  markets  are  well  supplied ;  but  vegetables  and 
other  provisions  require  to  be  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance, there  being  no  gardens  near  the  town  or 
verdure  of  any  kind,  except  such  as  is  afforded  by  a 
few  shrubs  and  date-trees.  Beyond  the  gate  is  held 
the  market  for  corn,  cattle,  wood,  charcoal,  and 
fruits.  Eastward  lies  the  principal  burying-ground, 
containing  the  sepulchres  of  several  sheiks  :  here, 
too,  is  shown  the  tomb  of  Eve,  the  mother  of  man- 
kind, which  Burckhardt  was  informed  is  a  rude 
structure  of  stone,  about  four  feet  in  length,  two  or 
three  in  height,  and  as  many  in  breadth.  The  prin- 
cipal commercial  street  of  Jidda  has  a  vast  number 
of  shops,  which,  as  in  all  parts  of  Turkey,  are  raised 
several  feet  above  the  ground;  before  them  are 
stone  benches,  on  which  purchasers  seat  themselves, 
and  where  they  are  sheltered  from  the  sun  by  an 


176  HEJAZ. 

awning  usually  made  of  mats  fastened  to  high  poles. 
The  pipe  is  the  constant  companion  of  the  lower 
classes,  and  of  all  the  sailors  on  the  Red  Sea.  The 
head  or  bowl  consists  of  an  unpolished  cocoanut 
shell  which  contains  water,  and  the  smoke  is  inhaled 
through  a  thick  reed,  or  a  long  serpentine  tube.  The 
coffee-houses  are  generally  filthy,  and  never  fre- 
quented by  the  better  class  of  merchants.  The 
dealers  in  other  commodities  are  very  numerous ; 
sellers  of  butter,  honey,  oil,  and  sugar ;  of  vege- 
tables, fruits,  and  confectionary  of  all  descriptions. 
There  are  pancake-makers  and  bean-sellers,  who 
furnish  these  articles  for  breakfast ;  soup-sellers, 
shops  for  roasted  meat  or  fried  fish,  stands  for  bread 
and  lehen  or  sour-milk  (which  is  sold  by  the  pound, 
and  extremely  dear),  for  Greek  cheese,  and  salted 
or  smoked  beef  from  Asia  Minor,  to  accommodate 
visiters  at  mid-day.  Corn-dealers  have  their  shops, 
vv^here  Egyptian  wheat,  barley,  beans,  lentils,  dhourra, 
rice,  and  biscuits  may  be  purchased.  The  druggists, 
who  are  mostly  natives  of  India,  have  their  labora- 
tories ;  where,  ..besides  medical  compounds,  they 
retail  wax,  candles,  pepper,  perfumery,  sugar,  and 
spices  of  all  sorts.  A  considerable  article  of  their 
trade  consists  in  rosebuds  brought  from  the  gardens 
of  Taif :  these  the  inhabitants  of  Hejaz,  especially 
the  ladies,  infuse  in  water,  which  they  afterward 
use  for  their  ablutions.  Tailors,  clothiers,  and  bar- 
bers are  not  numerous ;  the  latter  act  here  as  sur- 
geons and  physicians,  as  they  formerly  did  in  Eng- 
land. There  are  a  good  many  shops  where  small 
articles  of  Indian  manufacture  are  sold.  Very  little 
European  hardware  finds  its  way  to  these  markets, 
except  needles,  scissors,  thimbles,  and  files ;  copper- 
vessels,  water-skins,  and  other  domestic  utensils  are 
generally  imported.  In  a  street  adjoining  the  great 
market-place  live  a  few  artisans,  blacksmiths,  silver- 
smiths, carpenters,  and  some  butchers,  chiefly  na* 
tives  of  Egypt. 


JIDDA.  177 

Jidda  may  be  called  a  modern  town  ;  for,  although 
known  in  ancient  times  as  the  harbour  of  Mecca,  its 
importance  as  a  market  for  Indian  goods  can  only 
be  traced  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
During  the  predominance  of  the  Wahabees  it  had 
been  in  a  declining  state ;   its  trade  was  much  de- 
pressed, and  many  of  the  houses  had  gone  to  ruin. 
Since  the  conquests  of  the  Egyptians,  however,  it 
has  recovered  its  former  condition,  and  is  now  as 
flourishing  as  at  any  period  in  its  history.     In  1823 
it  had  a  Turkish  governor,  Rustan  Aga,  who  lived  in 
great  state,  and  kept  a  considerable  military  estab- 
lishment.    Burckhardt  states  the  number  of  inhab- 
itants generally  at  from  12,000  to  15,000;  but  about 
the  time  of  the  pilgrimage,  and  during  the  summer 
months,  there  is  a  great  influx  of  strangers,  which 
increases  that  amount  perhaps  one-half:  they  are 
almost  exclusively  foreigners.     The  settlers  from 
India,   Egypt,  Syria,   Barbary,  Turkey,  and  other 
nations  may  be  still  recognised  in  the  features  of 
their  descendants,  who  are  all  mixed  in  one  general 
mass,  and  live  and  dress  in  the  same  manner.     The 
aboriginal  tribes  who  once  peopled  the  town  have 
either  perished  by  the  hands  of  the  governors,  or 
been  driven  to  other  parts  of  the  country;   those 
who  can  be  truly  called  natives  are  merely  a  few 
families  of  sheriffs,  who  are  attached  to  the  mosques 
or  the  courts  of  justice.     This  mixture  of  races  is 
the  effect  of  the  pilgrimage,  which  every  year  adds 
fresh  numbers  to  the  population.     The  Jiddawees 
are  almost  entirely  engaged  in  commerce,  and  pur- 
sue no  manufactures  or  trades  but  those  of  immediate 
necessity.    Their  traffic  by  land  is  confined  to  Mecca 
and  Medina.     A  caravan  departs  for  the  latter  place 
once  in  forty  or  fifty  days,  and  consists  of  from  60 
to  100  camels,  conducted  by  Harb  Bedouins.     The 
more  common  route  of  intercourse,  however,  is  by 
Yembo,  to  which  goods  are  conveyed  by  sea.     The 
caravans  to  Mecca  set  out  almost  every  evening,  and 


178  HEJAZ. 

perform  the  journey  in  two  nights ;  the  camels  rest 
ing  at  a  station  midway  during  the  day.     In  addition 
to  these,  a  small  caravan  of  asses  lightly  laden  start? 
also  every  evening,  and  arrives  regularly  next  morn 
ing.     This  conveyance  is  the  usual  mail  for  post- 
letters.     The  inhabitants  evince  in  their  appearance 
the  extremes  of  wealth  and  indigence ;   there  is  a 
great  deal  of  luxury  in  the  costume  and  apartments 
of  the  rich ;  while  among  the  lower  orders  many  are 
almost  naked,  and  in  the  greatest  misery.     Ali  Bey 
remarked  a  prodigious  number  of  dogs  and  cats  in 
the  streets,  howUng  and  roaming  without  owners, 
but  says  there  are  few  flies,  and  no  gnats  or  other 
insects. 

Yembo  serves  as  the  port  to  Medina.      Though 
the  sheriffs  of  Mecca  were  in  the  habit  of  appoint- 
ing their  vizier  as  governor  of  the  place,  he  had  in 
most  cases  httle  authority  beyond  that  of  collecting 
the  customs;   the  government  being  exercised  by 
the  great  sheik  of  the  Jeheine  tribe,  to  which  many 
of  the  inhabitants  belonged.     The  town  is  built  on 
the  northern  side  of  a  deep  spacious  bay,  which 
affords  good  anchorage ;  and  is  protected  from  the 
violence  of  the  wind  by  an  island  at  its  entrance. 
A  creek  of  the  bay  divides  it  into  two  parts,  both  of 
which  are  enclosed  by  a  wall  of  considerable  strength. 
The  houses  are  low,  built  of  a  coarse  white  calca- 
reous stone  full  of  fossils,  and  have  a  mean  and 
wretched  appearance.     The   inhabitants  are  prin- 
cipally Arabs,  no   foreigners  having  settled  here 
except  two  or  three  Indian  shopkeepers,  or  a  few 
Turks  who  occasionally  take  up  a  temporary  resi- 
dence.    Yembo  possesses  about  forty  or  fifty  ships, 
which  engage  in  all  the  branches  of  the  Red  Sea 
trade  ;  but  they  are  daring  smugglers,— often  eluding 
the  heavy  duties  of  the  government  by  sending  a 
considerable  part  of  their  cargoes  ashore  by  stealth. 
The  transport  to  Medina  is  chiefly  in  provisions,  and 
occupies  a  great  number  of  carriers.     Tlie  YembJi- 


YEMBO TAIF.  179 

■Wees  are  all  armed  with  a  dagger  and  spear,  although 
they  seldom  appear  so  in  public,  and  they  usually 
carry  a  heavy  bludgeon  in  their  hand.  The  situation 
is  healthy,  and  the  markets  cheap ;  but  as  a  resi- 
dence it  must  be  extremely  disagreeable,  from  the 
incredible  quantity  of  flies  that  infest  the  coast. 
The  inhabitants  never  walk  out  without  a  fan  to 
drive  oflf  these  troublesome  vermin. 

Taif  is  under  the  government  of  a  subordinate 
officer,  with  little  authority,  appointed  by  the  sheriff. 
The  town  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  sandy  circular 
plain,  encompassed  by  low  mountains,  called  Gebel 
Ghazoan.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  square, 
of  about  two  miles  in  circumference,  surrounded  by 
a  rampart  and  ditch,  and  defended  by  several  towers. 
The  castle  occupies  a  rocky  elevated  site  ;  but  has 
no  claim  to  the  title  of  a  fortress,  except  that  it  is 
larger  than  the  other  edifices,  and  has  stronger  walls. 
The  houses  in  general  are  small,  but  well  built,  and 
supplied  with  two  copious  springs.  Taif  is  cele- 
brated over  all  Arabia  for  its  beautiful  gardens, 
which  are  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  In  some 
of  them  are  neat  pavilions,  where  the  inhabitants 
pass  their  festive  hours,  and  to  which  the  great 
merchants  of  Mecca  occasionally  retire  in  summer. 
Here  the  fruits  of  Syria  bloom  in  the  centre  of  the 
Arabian  desert ;  and  from  this  circumstance  tra- 
dition has  assigned  to  it  the  fabulous  origin  of 
having  been  detached  from  that  country,  either  at 
the  general  deluge,  or  by  virtue  of  the  prayers  of 
Abraham,  who  in  this  miraculous  way  obtained  for 
the  natives  and  pilgrims  at  Mecca  that  subsistence 
which  their  own  barren  hills  refused  them, 

Taif  suffered  much  in  the  Wahabee  war,  and 
since  that  period  it  has  remained  in  a  state  of  com- 
parative ruin.  Every  thing  has  the  aspect  of  mis- 
ery; the  principal  streets  swarm  with  beggars; 
and  the  trade,  which  consists  chiefly  in  drugs  and 
perfumes,  cannot  support  above  fifty  shops.     For- 


180  HEJAZ. 

merly  it  was  a  flourishing  commercial  town,  to- 
which  the  Arabs  from  a  great  distance  resorted  to 
dispose  of  their  caravans  of  wheat  and  barley,  and 
to  purchase  articles  of  dress.  Under  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt  it  may  perhaps  recover  from  its  present  de- 
cay.* The  indigenous  inhabitants  of  the  place  are 
Arabs  of  the  ancient  tribe  of  Thakif,  so  famous  m 
the  wars  of  Mohammed  ;  and  in  their  possession  are 
all  the  neighbouring  gardens,  and  most  of  the  pro- 
vision-shops in  the  town.  A  few  Meccawees  are 
settled  here  ;  but  the  far  greater  part  of  the  foreign- 
ers are  Indians  by  extraction. 

Mecca,  the  holy  city  of  the  Moslems,  so  long  for- 
bidden to  the  profane  eyes  of  Christians,  is  now 
familiar  to  every  reader  of  Arabian  travels  ;  and 
notwithstanding  the  growing  indifference  of  the 
Mohammedans  to  their  religion,  it  is  still  visited 
and  revered  by  all  orthodox  followers  ot  the  Pro- 
phet. Among  the  natives  it  is  dignified  with  many 
high-sounding  titles, — The  Mother  of  Towns, — The 
Noble,— The  Region  of  the  Faithful.  The  city  hes 
in  a  narrow  winding  valley,  the  main  direction  of 
which  is  from  north  to  south,  and  its  breadth  vary- 

*  Here  Ali  Pasha  had  his  head-quarters  in  1814  when  visited 
by  Burckhardt,  with  whom  he  held  a  long  and  interesting  con- 
versation respecting  the  atfairs  of  Europe,  of  which  he  appeared' 
to  have  a  tolerable  knowledge.  He  had  already  heard  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  and  the  captivity  of  Bona- 
parte in  Elba ;  and  made  some  curious  comments  on  the  new 
arrangements,  both  colonial  and  contmental,  of  the  Allied  Pow- 
ers. That  the  Enghsh  should  be  guided  in  their  policy  by  the 
laws  of  honour,  or  a  sense  of  the  general  good  of  Europe,  he 
could  not  comprehend.  "A  great  king,"  he  exclaimed  with 
much  warmth,  "  knows  nothing  but  his  sword  and  his  purse  ;. 
he  draws  the  one  to  fill  the  other ;  there  is  no  honour  among  con- 
querors !"  Of  the  British  parliament  he  had  some  notion  ;  and 
the  name  of  Wellington  was  familiar  to  him.  He  admitted  he 
was  a  great  general ;  but  doubted  whether  if  his  grace  had 
commanded  such  bad  soldiers  as  the  Turkish  troops,  he  would 
have  been  able  to  do  what  he  himself  had  done  in  conquering 
Egypt  and  Hejaz. 


MECCA.  181 

ing  from  100  to  700  yards.  The  buildings  cover  a 
space  of  about  1500  paces  in  length  ;  but  the  sub- 
urbs, from  one  extreme  to  the  other,  extend  to 
nearly  3500.  The  mountains,  enclosing  the  valley 
and  overhanging  the  town,  rise  from  200  to  500  feet 
in  height,  rugged,  and  completely  barren.  Mecca 
may  be  styled  a  handsome  town  ;  its  streets  are  in 
^•eneral  broader  than  those  of  Eastern  cities ;  the 
houses  lofty,  and  built  of  stone,  which,  being  of  a 
dark-gray  colour,  looks  more  agreeable  than  the 
glaring  white  that  offends  the  eye  at  Jidda  and  Mo- 
cha. The  numerous  windows  that  face  the  streets 
give  them  a  lively  and  European  aspect ;  the  greater 
number  project  from  the  wall,  and  have  their  frame- 
work elaborately  carved,  or  painted  with  brilliant 
colours.  In  front  hang  blinds  made  of  slight  reeds, 
which  exclude  flies  and  gnats  while  they  admit  fresh 
air.  The  doors  are  generally  approached  by  a  few 
steps,  and  have  small  seats  on  each  side. 

The  city  is  open  on  every  side  ;  though  in  former 
times  its  extremities  were  protected  by  three  walls, 
ruins  of  which  are  still  visible.  Except  four  or  five 
large  palaces  belonging  to  the  sheriff,  two  colleges, 
and  the  great  mosque,  it  cannot  boast  of  any  public 
edifices ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  perhaps  more  defi- 
cient than  any  other  oriental  town  of  the  same  size. 
Nearly  all  the  common  houses  are  divided  into 
small  apartments,  for  the  accommodation  of  lodgers 
during  the  pilgrimage.  The  terraces  on  the  roof 
are  concealed  from  view  by  slight  parapet  walls; 
for,  throughout  the  East,  it  is  reckoned  discredit- 
able for  a  man  to  appear  where  he  might  be  accused 
of  looking  at  the  women,  who  pass  the  greater  part 
of  their  time  on  the  terraces,  employed  in  hanging 
up  linen,  drying  corn,  and  various  domestic  occu- 
pations. The  streets,  being  sandy  and  mipaved,  are 
disagreeable  in  summer,  and  equally  so  from  mud  in 
the  rainy  season,  during  which  they  are  scarcely 
passable ;  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  town,  where 

Vol.  II.— Q 


182  HEJAZ. 

the  water  does  not  run  off,  are  converted  into  pools, 
and  allowed  to  remain  till  they  dry. 

The  police  of  the  city  is  badly  regulated :  as  there 
are  no  lamps,  the  streets  are  totally  dark,  and  en- 
cumbered with  the  rubbish  and  sweepings  cast  from 
the  houses.  The  inhabitants  are  but  poorly  sup- 
phed  with  water ;  the  best  is  conveyed  from  the 
vicinity  of  Arafat,  six  or  seven  hours  distant,  by  an 
aqueduct  of  vast  labour  and  magnitude,  first  erected, 
according  to  the  Arabian  historians,  by  Zobeide,  the 
wife  of  Haroun  al  Raschid,  and  frequently  repaired 
at  great  expense  by  the  Turkish  sultans.  In  some 
quarters  of  the  town  there  are  handsome  shops,  for 
the  sale  of  all  sorts  of  provisions.  The  baths,  three 
in  number,  are  of  an  inferior  order,  and  chiefly  fre- 
quented by  foreigners. 

The  only  pubhc  edifice  worthy  of  note  is  the 
Great  Mosque  or  Temple,  which  the  Moslem  call 
Beitullah  (the  House  of  God),  or  El  Haram  (the 
Temple  of  Excellence).  This  celebrated  structure 
has  been  so  often  ruined  and  repaired,  that  no  traces 
of  remote  antiquity  are  to  be  found  al30ut  it.  From 
the  days  of  Omar,  who  laid  its  first  foundations,  to 
the  present  century,  various  caliphs,  emperors,  sul- 
tans, and  imams  have  signalized  their  piety  by 
renewing,  altering,  or  adding  to  its  buildings.  Al- 
mansor  enlarged  the  north  and  south  side  to  twice 
its  former  extent;  IMahadi,  INIotassem,  Motaded, 
and  others  of  the  Abbassides,  expended  immense 
sums  in  the  erection  of  columns,  new  gates,  and 
marble  pavements.  After  its  restoration  from  the 
disasters  it  experienced  at  the  hands  of  the  hereti- 
cal Karmathians,  no  changes  or  additions  were 
made  for  several  centuries.  The  Sultan  Solyman 
caused  all  the  domes  to  be  raised  which  cover  the 
roof  of  the  colonnades,  and  laid  the  pavement  that 
is  now  round  the  Kaaba.  From  the  year  1627, 
when  it  was  rebuilt,  after  being  partly  destroyed  by 


MECCA.  183 

a  torrent  from  the  hills,  no  other  material  altera- 
tions or  improvements  took  place  till  the  eighteenth 
century;  so  that  the  building,  as  it  now  appears, 
may  be  almost  wholly  ascribed  to  the  munificence 
of  the  last  sultans  of  Egypt  and  the  Turkish  empe- 
rors. In  the  autumn  of  1816,  several  artists  and 
workmen  sent  from  Constantinople  were  employed 
in  repairing  the  damage  done  by  the  Wahabees. 

The  Temple  stands  near  the  middle  of  the  city : 
it  is  a  quadrilateral  building,  much  resembling  in 
form,  according  to  Pitts,*  that  of  the  Royal  Ex- 

*  Joseph  Pitts  of  Exeter  was  the  first  Englishman  we  know 
of  that  visited  either  of  the  holy  cities.  The  ship  in  which  he 
sailed  being  captured  in  1678  by  a  Moorish  pirate,  he  was  car- 
ried to  Algiers,  where  he  remained  in  slavery  fifteen  years.  By 
cruel  treatment  he  was  compelled  to  become  a  Mussulman  : — 
in  that  capacity  he  accompanied  his  master,  an  old  Turkish 
bachelor,  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  who  gave  him  his  liberty 
on  their  return.  His  narrative  is  homely,  but  surprisingly  accu- 
rate. It  is  curious  that  Gibbon  seems  not  to  have  seen  or  known 
of  it.  A  much  earlier  traveller,  and  the  first  Christian  in  modern 
times  that  gave  a  tolerable  account  of  Arabia,  was  Ludovico 
Barthema  of  Bologna,  who,  in  1503,  &c.  visited  Egj'pt,  Syria, 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  India.  At  Damascus  he  contrived,  in  the 
guise  of  a  Mamlouk  soldier,  to  accompany  one  of  the  pilgrim 
caravans  to  Mecca  and  Medina,  where  he  paid  his  devoirs  at 
the  tomb  of  Mohammed,  and  went  through  the  whole  ceremo- 
nies of  the  haj ;  after  which  he  escaped  to  Jidda,  and  thence  by 
way  of  Aden  to  Persia.  The  caravan,  he  says,  consisted  of 
35,000  persons,  and  40,000  camels.  (See  his  travels  in  Ramu- 
sio's  Raccolta  delle  Navigat.  et  Viaggi,  tome  i.)  The  Sheik  Ibn 
Batuta,  whose  travels  have  been  recently  translated  by  Pro- 
fessor Lee  of  Cambridge,  performed  the  pilgrimage  in  1332  ; 
but  they  contain  few  facts  concerning  Arabia.  His  whole  ac- 
count of  Mecca  is  "May  God  ennoble  it !"  He  observes  the 
same  brevity  regarding  Sanaa,  Aden,  Muscat,  and  other  towns 
which  he  visited.  Seetzen  was  also  at  Mecca  during  the  time 
of  the  pilgrimage,  under  the  protection  of  a  Moorish  merchant ; 
but  his  stay  was  short,  and  his  description  differs  little  from 
those  of  Ali  Bey  and  Burckhardt.  He  went  to  Sanaa,  which 
he  represents  as  superior  to  most  cities  that  he  had  seen  in 
Palestine,  Syria,  or  Arabia. 


184  HEJAZ. 

change  in  London,  but  nearly  ten  times  larger.  It 
has  properly  no  external  front,  the  walls  being  con- 
nected on  the  outside  with  the  adjoining  houses, 
some  of  which  have  windows  that  look  into  the 
interior.  These  tenements  belonged  originally  to 
the  mosque,  but  the  greater  part  of  them  are  now 
the  property  of  individuals,  who  let  out  the  different 
apartments  to  the  richer  hajjis  at  very  high  prices. 
The  gates  of  the  mosque  are  nineteen  in  number, 
dis  tributed  without  any  order  or  symmetry.  Most 
of  them  have  high  pointed  arches,  though  some  are 
roivid,  or  almost  semicircular  ;  and  as  each  gate 
consists  of  two  or  three  divisions,  the  whole  num- 
be '  of  these  arches  is  thirty-nine.  They  are  without 
any  ornament  except  the  inscriptions  on  the  exte- 
rior, which  commemorate  the  merits  of  the  builder. 
Theie  being  no  doors,  the  mosque  is  open  at  all 
hours,  night  and  day. 

The  great  inner  court  of  the  Temple  forms  a 
parallelogram  or  oblong  of  about  250  paces  in  length 
and  200  in  breadth.  Ali  Bey's  measurement  is  536 
feet  9  inches  by  356.  The  whole  square  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  colonnade  or  double  piazza,  the  fronts 
of  the  two  tonger  sides  presenting  thirty-six  and 
the  two  shorter  twenty-four  arches,  supported  by 
columns  of  different  proportions,  and  amounting  in 
all  to  nearly  500.  On  the  eastern  side  the  row  of 
pillars  is  four  deep,  and  three  deep  on  the  others ; 
they  are  above  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  generally 
from  U  to  1|  feet  in  diameter.  Some  of  them  are 
of  white  marble,  granite,  or  porphyry  ;  but  the 
greater  number  consist  of  common  stone  from  the 
neighbouring  mountains.  No  regular  order  of  archi- 
tecture is  observed,  and  no  two  capitals  or  bases  are 
exactly  alike.  The  former  are  of  coarse  Saracen 
workmanship,  while,  from  the  ignorance  of  the 
workmen,  not  a  few  of  them  have  been  placed 
upside  down.     Some  of  the  shafts  in  the  weaker 


MECCA.  187 

parts  are  strengthened  with  broad  iron  hoops  or 
bands,  as  in  many  other  buildings  in  the  East.* 

The  arches  that  front  the  great  court  are  all 
crowned  with  small  conical  domes,  plastered  and 
whitened  on  the  outside  ;  beyond  these  is  a  second 
row  of  low  spherical  cupolas,  amounting  in  all  to 
152  ;  and  above  them  rise  seven  minarets  or  steeples, 
from  the  summits  of  which  a  beautiful  view  is  ob- 
tained of  the  busy  crowd  below.  These  are  irregu- 
arly  distributed,  one  being  at  each  angle,  and  the 
rest  at  different  parts  of  the  mosque.  Some  parts 
of  the  walls  and  arches,  as  well  as  the  minarets,  are 
gaudily  painted  in  stripes  of  yellow,  red,  or  blue. 
Around  the  whole  colonnade  lamps  are  suspended 
from  the  arches,  part  of  which  are  lighted  every 
night.  The  floors  of  the  piazza  are  paved  Avith  large 
stones,  badly  cemented.  The  area  of  the  court  is 
below  the  level  of  the  street,  and  surromided  by  a 
flight  of  stairs  eight  or  ten  steps  in  descent.  From 
the  colonnades  seven  paved  footpaths  lead  towards 
the  centre,  elevated  about  nine  inches  above  the 
ground,  and  of  sufficient  breadth  to  admit  four  or 
five  persons  to  walk  abreast.  The  intermediate 
spaces  are  covered  with  fine  gravel  or  sand. 

*  The  annexed  engraving  of  Mecca  and  the  Temple  is  from 
the  splendid  work  of  D'Ohsson  (Tableau  de  I'Emp.  Ottoman). 
The  appearance  of  the  town  has  altered  materially  since  the 
ravages  committed  by  the  Wahabees  in  the  present  century ; 

ut  the  view  of  the  temple  Burckhardt  has  pronounced  to  be 
tolerably  accurate,  only  the  Kaaba  is  somewhat  large  in  propor- 

ion  to  the  rest  of  the  building.  The  view  given  in  Niebuhr, 
copied  from  an  ancient  Arabic  drawing,  is  less  accurate  than 
that  by  D'Ohsson.  The  ground-plan  of  the  mosque  in  Ali  Bey 
is  perfectly  correct ;  but  his  views  in  Mecca  and  the  Hejaz  are 
not  faithful.  The  view  of  Medina  (vol.  i.  p.  262)  is  also  from 
D'Ohsson.  That  city  has  also  been  altered  in  its  appearance 
by  the  fate  of  war.  The  suburbs  are  entirely  omitted  by  the 
latter  writer  ;  and  the  mosque  of  the  Prophet,  being  copied  from 
an  old  Arabic  drawing,  differs  in  several  particulars  from  the 
modern  structure.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Burckhardt  was 
prevented  by  severe  illness  from  giving  a  correct  plan  of  it 


188  HEJAZ. 

Nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  court  stands  the 
Kaaba,  the  "  navel  of  the  world,"  as  Ibn  Haukal 
calls  it,  the  most  remarkable  building  about  the 
mosque,  and  the  only  part  which  lays  claim  to  high 
antiquity.  It  is  an  oblong  massive  structure,  the 
sides  and  angles  of  which  are  unequal,  so  that  its 
plan  forms  a  trapezium ;  but  the  flat  roof,  the  size 
of  the  edifice,  and  the  black  cloth  covering,  give  it 
the  appearance  of  a  perfect  cube.  It  is  constructed 
of  the  gray  Mecca  stone,  in  large  unpolished  blocks 
of  different  sizes,  and  remains  as  it  was  when  rebuilt 
in  1627.  The  length,  according  to  Burckhardt,  is 
eighteen  paces,  the  breadth  fourteen,  and  the  height 
from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet.  The  only  entrance 
is  by  a  door  on  the  north  side,  which  is  opened  but 
two  or  three  times  in  the  year,  and  elevated  about 
seven  feet  above  the  ground.  In  entering  it  a 
wooden  staircase  is  used,  mounted  on  six  large  rol- 
lers of  bronze,  with  hand-railings  on  each  side,  and 
broad  enough  to  admit  four  persons  abreast.  It  con- 
sists of  ten  steps,  and  is  moved  to  the  wall  when 
visiters  ascend.  The  present  door,  which  was  sent 
from  Constantinople  in  1633,  is  wholly  coated  with 
silver,  and  fastened  with  an  enormous  padlock  of 
the  same  metal.  It  has  several  gilt  ornaments  ; 
and  upon  the  threshold  are  placed  every  night  va- 
rious small  lighted  wax-candles,  and  perfuming-pans 
filled  with  musk,  aloes-wood,  and  other  aromatics. 

On  the  western  side  projects  tlie  myzab  or  water- 
spout, through  which  the  rain  collected  on  the  roof 
is  discharged.  It  is  about  four  feet  in  length,  and 
reported  to  be  of  pure  gold,  but  is  more  probably  of 
gilt  bronze.  The  water  falls  on  two  large  slabs  of 
fine  verde  antique,  which  are  said  to  mark  the  spot 
where  Ishmael  and  his  mother  Hagar  were  buried. 
This  is  enclosed  by  a  semicircular  wall  (called  El 
Hatim)  about  three  or  four  feet  from  the  side  of 
the  Kaaba.  It  is  built  of  solid  stone,  five  feet  in 
height  and  four  thick,  cased  all  over  with  white 


MECCA.  189 

marble,  and  inscribed  with  prayers  and  invocations. 
The  interior  of  the  Kaaba  consists  only  of  a  hall, 
the  floor  of  which  is  paved  with  the  finest  marble  ; 
and  the  lower  part  of  the  walls  is  ornamented  with 
inscriptions,  arabesques  in  relief,  and  similar  deco- 
rations. The  ceiling  is  supported  by  two  columns, 
and  there  is  a  door  through  which  persons  ascend 
to  the  roof.  The  hall  is  hghted  by  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  gold  lamps,  and  almost  entirely  covered  with 
cloth  of  a  rose-coloured  silk,  lined  with  white,  and 
sprinkled  with  flowers  embroidered  with  silver. 

Near  the  entrance,  at  the  north-eastern  corner,  is 
the  famous  Black  Stone,  called  by  the  Moslems 
Hajra  el  Assouad,  or  Heavenly  Stone.  It  forms  a 
part  of  the  sharp  angle  of  the  building,  and  is  inserted 
four  or  five  feet  above  the  ground.  The  shape  is  an 
irregular  oval,  about  seven  inches  in  diameter.  Its 
colour  is  now  a  deep  reddish  brown,  approaching  to 
black ;  and  it  is  surrounded  by  a  border  of  nearly 
the  same  colour,  resembling  a  cement  of  pitch  and 
gravel,  and  from  two  to  three  inches  in  breadth. 
Both  the  border  and  the  stone  itself  are  encircled 
by  a  silver  band,  swelling  to  a  considerable  breadth 
below,  where  it  is  studded  with  nails  of  the  same 
metal.  The  surface  is  undulated,  and  seems  com- 
posed of  about  a  dozen  smaller  stones  of  different 
sizes  and  shapes,  but  perfectly  smooth,  and  well 
joined  with  a  small  quantity  of  cement.  It  looks 
as  if  the  whole  had  been  dashed  into  many  pieces 
by  a  severe  concussion,  and  then  reunited ; — an 
appearance  that  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the 
various  disasters  to  which  it  has  been  exposed. 
During  the  fire  that  occurred  in  the  time  of  Yezzid  I. 
(A.  D.  682),  the  violent  heat  split  it  into  three  pieces; 
and  when  the  fragments  were  replaced,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  surround  them  with  a  rim  of  silver,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  renewed  by  Haroun  al  Raschid. 
It  was  in  two  pieces  when  the  Karmathians  carried 
it  away,  having  been  broken  by  a  blow  from  a  soldier 


190  HEJAZ. 

during  the  plunder  of  Mecca.  Hakem,  a  maa  sultan 
of  Egypt,  in  the  eleventh  century,  endeavoured, 
while  on  the  pilgrimage,  to  destroy  it  with  an  iron 
club  which  he  had  concealed  under  his  clothes  ;  but 
was  prevented  and  slain  by  the  populace.  Since 
that  accident  it  remained  unmolested  until  1674, 
when  it  was  found  one  morning  besmeared  with 
dirt,  so  that  every  one  who  kissed  it  returned  with 
a  sullied  face.  Though  suspicion  fell  on  certain 
Persians,  the  authors  of  this  sacrilegious  joke  were 
never  discovered.  As  for  the  quality  of  the  stone, 
it  does  not  seem  to  be  accurately  determined. 
Burckhardt  says  it  appeared  to  him  like  a  lava,  con- 
taining several  small  extraneous  particles  of  a 
whitish  and  a  yellowish  substance.  Ali  Bey  calls 
it  a  fragment  of  volcanic  basalt,  sprinkled  with  small- 
pointed  coloured  crystals,  and  varied  with  red  feld- 
spar upon  a  dark  black  ground  like  coal,  except  one 
of  its  protuberances,  which  is  a  little  reddish.  The 
millions  of  kisses  and  touches  impressed  by  the 
faithful  have  worn  the  surface  uneven,  and  to  a  con- 
siderable depth.  This  miraculous  block  all  orthodox 
Mussulmans  believe  to  have  been  originally  a  trans- 
parent hyacinth,  brought  from  heaven  to  Abraham 
by  the  angel  Gabriel ;  but  its  substance,  as  well  as 
its  colour,  have  long  been  changed  by-  coming  in 
contact  with  the  impurities  of  the  human  race. 

The  four  sides  of  the  Kaaba  are  covered  with  a 
black  silk  stuff  called  the  kesoua,  and  the  tob  or  shirt, 
which  is  brought  from  Cairo,  and  put  on  every  year 
at  the  time  of  the  pilgrimage.  The  roof  is  left  bare, 
and  during  the  first  days  the  new  kesoua  is  tucked 
up  by  means  of  cords,  so  as  to  leave  the  lower  part 
of  the  building  exposed ;  but  in  course  of  a  short 
time  it  is  let  down  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  struc- 
ture, and  is  then  fastened  to  strong  brass  rings 
below.  On  this  curtain  various  prayers  and  passages 
of  the  Koran  are  interwoven  ;  and  a  little  above  the 
middle  is  a  hue  or  band  of  similar  ijiscriptions  (called 


MECCA.  191 

El  Hazem,  or  the  belt)  worked  in  gold  thread,  and 
running  round  the  entire  edifice.  An  opening  is 
made  for  the  black  stone  ;  but  the  part  of  the  kesoua 
which  covers  the  door  is  richly  embroidered  with 
silver. 

In  the  first  centuries  of  Islam  the  tob  was  never 
taken  away, — the  new  one  being  always  put  over 
the  old  ;  but  this  custom  was  at  length  abolished, — 
the  Meccawees  fearing  that  the  Kaaba  might  sink 
under  such  an  accumulation  of  clothing.  The  re- 
moval of  the  old  kesoua  was  performed  in  a  very 
indecorous  manner;- — a  contest  always  ensued 
among  the  pilgrims  and  the  people  for  the  shreds 
or  rags.  Even  the  dust  that  adhered  to  the  wall 
mider  it  was  collected  and  sold  as  sacred  relics. 
The  curtain  and  belt  belong  to  the  sheriff,  who  cuts 
them  up  and  disposes  of  them  at  five  francs  a  cubit. 
Pitts  says  that  a  piece  the  size  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
cost  nine  or  ten  shillings  :  it  is  esteemed  an  excel- 
lent amulet,  and  many  have  it  laid  on  their  breast 
when  dying. 

The  clothing  of  the  Kaaba  was  a  practice  of  the 
pagan  Arabs,  who  used  two  coverings, —  one  for 
winter  and  the  other  for  summer.  It  appears  to 
have  always  been  considered  as  an  emblem  of 
sovereignty  over  the  Hejaz  ;  and  has  in  consequence 
been  furnished  by  the  princes  of  Bagdad,  Egypt,  or 
Yemen,  according  as  their  influence  prevailed  at 
Mecca.  It  is  now  supplied  at  the  expense  of  the 
grand  seignior ;  and  such  a  sacredness  attaches  to 
it,  that  the  camel  which  transports  it  to  Mecca  is 
ever  after  exempted  from  labour.  The  black  colour 
of  the  vestment,  and  the  size  of  the  building,  give 
it  at  first  sight  a  xQYy  singular  and  imposing  appear- 
ance. Seventy  thousand  angels  have  this  edifice 
in  their  holy  care,  and  are  ordered  to  transport  it  to 
paradise  when  the  trumpet  of  the  last  judgment  shall 
be  sounded.  The  colour  of.the  tob  was  not  always 
black ;  in  ancient  times  it  was  white,  and  sometimes 


192  HEJAZ. 

red,  consisting  of  the  richest  brocade.  The  Waha- 
bees  covered  it  with  a  red  camlet  stuff,  of  which  the 
fine  Arabian  abbas  are  made.  The  new  kesoua  is 
put  up  fifteen  days  after  the  old  one  has  been 
removed,  during  which  interval  the  Kaaba  continues 
without  a  cover.  At  the  moment  when  the  building 
is  clothed,  crowds  of  women  surround  it,  rejoicing 
with  shouts  or  cries,  called  ivalwalou. 

The  ground  for  about  forty  feet  round  the  Kaaba 
is  paved  with  fine  marble,  variously  coloured,  and 
forming  a  very  handsome  specimen  of  Mosaic.  This 
space,  on  which  the  pilgrims  perform  the  toicaf  or 
circuit,  is  of  an  elliptical  figure,  and  surrounded  with 
a  sort  of  railing  or  enclosure  of  thirty-two  slender 
gilt  pillars,  about  seven  feet  and  a  half  in  height ; 
between  every  two  of  which  are  suspended  seven 
lamps  of  thick  green  glass  of  a  globular  shape,  which 
are  always  lighted  after  sunset. 

Opposite  the -four  sides  of  the  Kaaba,  and  in  the 
circular  line  of  the  pillars,  stand  four  other  small 
buildings,  called  makams,  where  the  imams  of  the 
four  orthodox  sects,  namely,  the  Hanifees,  Shafees, 
Hanbalees,  and  Malekees,  take  their  station,  and 
guide  the  congregation  in  their  prayers.  The  Ma- 
kam  Ibrahim,  or  Place  of  Abraham,  faces  the  door 
of  the  Kaaba,  and  is  supported  by  six  pillars.  Near 
this  structure  stands  the  mamhar,  or  pulpit  of  the 
mosque,  which  is  of  fine  white  marble,  with  many 
sculptured  ornaments.  A  straight  narrow  staircase 
leads  up  to  the  post  of  the  khatib  or  preacher,  who 
officiates,  wrapped  up  in  a  white  cloak,  which  covers 
his  head  and  body ;  two  green  flags  are  placed  on 
each  side  of  him,  and  in  his  hand  he  holds  a  stick ; — 
a  practice  also  observed  in  Egypt  and  Syria  in 
memory  of  the  first  ages  of  Islam,  when  the  preacher 
found  it  necessary  to  be  armed  for  fear  of  being 
surprised.  Here  sermon  is  delivered  every  Friday, 
and  on  certain  festivals.  It  is  near  the  mambar 
that  visiters  on  entering  deposite  their  shoes  ;  none 


MECCA.  193 

being  permitted  to  walk  round  the  Kaaba  with  cov- 
ered feet. 

The  only  other  building  within  the  court  worthy 
of  notice  is  the  Bir  Zemzem  or  Zemzem  Well.  This 
building,  which  was  erected  about  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  is  a  square  of  massive  con- 
struction, with  an  entrance  opening  into  the  apart- 
ment which  contains  the  spring.  The  room  is 
tastefully  ornamented  with  marbles  of  various  col- 
ours :  it  is  rather  more  than  seventeen  feet  square, 
and  lighted  by  eight  windows.  The  depth  of  the 
well  is  said  to  be  fifty-six  feet  to  the  surface  of  the 
water ;  its  mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  brim  of  fine 
white  marble,  five  feet  high,  and  about  ten  in  diam- 
eter. Upon  this  the  persons  stand  who  draw  the 
water  in  leathern  buckets  attached  to  pulleys  ; — an 
iron  railing  being  so  placed  as  to  prevent  their  fall- 
ing in.  The  chief  of  the  well  has  the  somewhat 
alarming  title  of  the  Poisoner ;  but  Ali  Bey  assures 
us,  he  was  a  very  handsome  person,  of  the  most 
winning  and  graceful  manners.  The  number  of 
pitchers  is  immense  ;  they  are  of  unglazed  earth,  so 
porous  that  the  liquid  filters  through.  Their  form 
is  long  and  cylindrical,  terminating  in  a  point  at  the 
bottom,  so  that  they  cannot  stand  unless  placed 
against  the  wall.  The  Turks  consider  it  a  miracle 
that  the  supply  never  diminishes,  notwithstanding 
the  continual  demand ;  for  it  serves  the  whole  town, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  family  that  does  not  daily 
use  it  for  drinking  or  for  ablution ;  but  it  is  deemed 
impious  to  employ  it  in  culinary  or  common  occa- 
sions. This  phenomenon,  however,  is  explained 
by  Burckhardt,  who  discovered  that  the  water  was 
supplied  by  a  subterraneous  rivulet.  When  first 
drawn  up  it  is  slightly  tepid,  resembling  in  this  re- 
spect many  other  fountains  in  Hejaz.  It  is  heavy 
to  the  taste,  and  sometimes  of  a  colour  resembling 
milk ;  but  it  is  wholesome  and  perfectly  sweet,  dif- 

VoL,  II.— R 


194  HEJAZ. 

fering  in  this  respect  from  the  brackish  wells  in  the 
town. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  Zemzem  stand  two  small 
ugly  buildings,  one  behind  the  other,  called  kobbe- 
iein,  in  which  are  kept  water-jars,  lamps,  carpets, 
brooms,  mats,  and  other  articles.   They  are  covered 
with  painted   domes ;   but   are   not   considered  as 
forming  any  part  of  the  mosque,  no  religious  im- 
portance  being    attached  to   them.      The   gravel- 
ground,  from  the  circular  pavement  to  the  colonnade, 
is  covered  at  the  time  of  evening  prayer  with  carpets 
of  Egyptian  manufacture,  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet 
in  length  and  four  in  breadth,  which  are  rolled  up 
after  the  devotions  are  over.     It  is  only,  however, 
during  the  time  of  prayer,  that  the  sanctity  of  the 
mosque  is  regarded.     Every  hour  of  the  day  per- 
sons may  be  seen  under  the  colonnades  reading  the 
Koran,  or  hearing  lectures  delivered  by  the  ulemas 
on  religious  subjects.     There  many  poor  Indians 
and  negroes  spread  their  mats,  where  they  are  al- 
lowed to  eat  and  sleep  ;  and  at  noon  loiterers  come 
to  repose  under  the  cool  shade  of  the  piazza.     In 
other  parts  of  it  are  public  schools,  where  the  stick 
of  the  pedagogue  is  in  constant  action  among  noisy 
groups  of  children.  Winding-sheets  and  other  linens 
washed  hi  the  Zemzem  water,  are  constantly  seen 
hanging  to  dry  between  the  pillars ;  for  many  pil- 
grims purchase  their  shrouds  {keffen)  at  Mecca,  be- 
lieving that  if  their  corpse  be  wrapped  in  linen 
which  has  been  wetted  in  holy  water,  the  peace  of 
the  soul  after  death  will  be  more  effectually  secured. 
The  square  is  used  as  a  play-ground  for  boys ;  and 
servants  carry  luggage   across  it,  to  pass  by  the 
nearest  route  from  one  quarter  of  the  city  to  another. 
Here,  too,  men  of  business  meet  and  converse  on 
their  affairs  ;  and  sometimes  the  precincts  are  so  full 
of  mendicants  and  diseased  people  lying  about  in 
the  midst  of  their  tattered  baggage,  as  to  make  the 


MECCA.  195 

place  resemble  an  hospital  rather  than  a  temple ; — 
even  the  Kaaba  itself  is  rendered  the  scene  of  such 
indecencies  as  cannot  be  particularly  described,  and 
which  are  practised  not  only  with  impunity,  but  it 
may  be  almost  said  without  concealment. 

Near  the  gate  of  Bab  es  Salem,  a  few  Arab  sheiks 
daily  take  their  seat,  with  their  paper  and  inkstands, 
ready  to  write  for  any  applicant,  letters,  accounts, 
contracts,  amulets,  billet-doux,  or  any  similar  docu- 
ments. They  are  principally  employed  by  the  Be- 
douins, and  demand  an  exorbitant  remuneration. 
One  species  of  inviolable  property  belonging  to  the 
mosque  are  the  flocks  of  wild  pigeons  with  which 
Mecca  abounds,  and  which  nobody  dares  venture 
to  kill.  Several  small  stone  basins  are  regularly 
filled  with  water  for  their  use  ;  and  as  it  is  consid- 
ered an  act  of  piety  to  feed  them,  there  are  women 
who  expose  corn  and  dhourra  for  sale  on  small 
straw  mats,  and  who  occasionally  embrace  the  op- 
portunity of  intriguing  with  the  pilgrims,  under 
the  pretence  of  selling  them  corn  for  the  sacred 
pigeons- 

The  service  of  the  temple  employs  a  vast  number 
of  people,  consisting  of  khatibs,  imams,  muftis,  mu- 
ezzins, ulemas,  eunuchs,  lamp-hghters,  metowafs,  or 
guides,  with  a  host  of  other  menial  servants,  all  of 
whom  receive  regular  pay  from  the  mosque,  besides 
their  share  of  the  presents  made  to  it  by  the  hajjis. 
The  first  officer  is  the  Naib  el  Haram,  or  guardian, 
who  keeps  the  keys  of  tlie  Kaaba,  and  superintends 
the  repairs  of  the  building.  Burckhardt  says  he 
was  one  of  the  heads  of  the  three  only  families  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  Koreish,  then  resident  in 
Mecca.  Next  to  him  is  the  aga  or  chief  of  the  eu- 
nuchs, who  performs  the  duty  of  police-officer  in 
the  temple.  His  attendants  prevent  disorders,  and 
daily  wash  and  sweep  the  pavement  round  the 
Kaaba.  Their  dress  is  the  Turkish  kaouk,  and  they 
carry  a  long  stick  in  their  hand,  with  which  they 


196  HEJAZ. 

lay  freely  about  them  in  cases  of  quarrels  or  riots. 
Their  number  exceeds  forty,  and  most  of  them  are 
negroes  or  copper-coloured  Indians.  The  ag-a  is  a 
personage  of  great  importance,  entitled  to  sit  in  the 
presence  of  the  pasha  and  the  sheriff. 

The  revenue  of  the  mosque  is  considerable,  al- 
though it  has  been  deprived  of  the  best  branches  of 
its  income.  There  are  few  towns  or  districts  in  the 
Turkish  empire  in  which  it  does  not  possess  prop- 
erty in  land  or  houses ;  but  the  annual  amount  is 
often  withheld  by  the  provincial  governors,  or  dimin- 
ished by  the  number  of  hands  through  which  it 
passes.  Formerly  the  sultans  of  Egypt  and  Con- 
stantinople sent  it  large  sums  every  year ;  but  at 
present  it  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  comparative  pov- 
erty. Notwithstanding  the  stories  about  its  riches, 
it  possesses  no  treasures  except  a  few  golden  lamps. 
The  history  of  the  Beitullah  has  occupied  the  pens 
of  many  learned  Arabs  ;  but  in  its  construction  it 
differs  little  from  many  other  buildings  of  the  same 
kind  in  Asia.  Those  of  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and 
Cairo  are  exactly  on  the  same  plan,  with  an  arched 
colonnade  round  an  open  square. 

The  inhabitants  of  Mecca  may  all  be  called  for- 
eigners or  the  offspring  of  foreigners,  except  a  fevr 
Hejaz  Bedouins  or  their  descendants,  who  have  set- 
tled there.  Though  a  mixed  population,  they  have 
nearly  the  same  manners,  and  wear  the  same  dress ; 
so  little  tenacious  are  they  of  their  national  cus- 
toms. There  are  few  families  in  moderate  circum- 
stances that  do  not  keep  slaves  ;  the  male  and  female 
servants  are  negroes  ;  and  most  of  the  wealthier  in- 
habitants, in  addition  to  their  lawful  wives,  keep 
Abyssinian  mistresses.  It  is  considered  disgraceful 
to  sell  a  concubine :  if  she  bears  a  child,  and  the 
master  has  not  already  four  legally-married  wives, 
he  takes  her  in  matrimony ;  if  not,  she  remains  in 
his  house  for  life ;  and  in  some  instances  the  num- 
ber of  concubines,  old  and  young,  is  increased  to 


MECCA.  197 

several  dozens.  The  middling  and  lower  classes 
make  a  lucrative  traffic  in  young  Abyssinians, 
whom  they  bring  up  on  speculation,  and  sell  to 
strangers. 

The  Meccawees  are  very  expensive  in  their 
houses ;  the  rooms  being  embellished  with  fine  car- 
pets, and  abundance  of  cushions  and  sofas  covered 
with  brocade.  Their  furniture  is  costly — their 
tables  well  supplied — and  in  receiving  visits,  which 
are  frequent,  every  mistress  mnkes  it  her  endeavour 
to  surpass  her  acquaintances  in  show  and  magnifi- 
cence. The  great  merchants,  most  of  whom  have 
country-residences  at  Jidda  or  Taif,  live  very  splen- 
didly, maintaining  an  establishment  of  fifty  or  sixty 
persons.  Every  native  delicacy  is  to  be  found  at 
their  tables ;  the  china  and  glass  ware  in  which  the 
viands  are  served  up  are  of  the  best  quality  ;  rose- 
water  is  sprinkled  on  the  beards  of  the  guests  after 
dinner ;  and  the  room  is  filled  with  the  odours  of 
aloes-wood.  The  usual  custom  is  two  meals  daily, 
— one  before  midday,  the  other  after  sunset.  Their 
mutton  is  of  inferior  quality ;  they  hardly  know  the 
existence  of  fish ;  and  their  pot-herbs  are  brought 
from  Taif  and  other  neighbouring  places. 

In  personal  appearance  the  Meccawees  are  thin 
rather  than  robust ;  their  features  are  expressive, 
particularly  in  the  vivacity  and  brilliancy  of  the 
eyes;  their  colour  is  a  yellowish  sickly  broM^n, 
lighter  or  darker  according  to  the  origin  of  the 
mother,  who  in  many  cases  is  an  Abyssinian  slave. 
The  lower  classes  are  stout  and  muscular  ;  but  the 
numerous  retainers  of  the  temple  appear  to  be  the 
most  meager  and  emaciated  beings  imaginable.  Ali 
Bey  represents  them  as  absolutely  walking  skele- 
tons, clothed  with  a  parchment  to  cover  their  bones. 
From  their  lean  and  scraggy  frame,  their  hollow 
cheeks,  large  sunken  eyes,  shrivelled  legs  and  arms, 
they  might  be  mistaken  for  true  anatomical  models ; 

R2 


198  HEJAZ. 

and  but  for  the  prospective  felicities  of  paradise, 
their  existence  on  earth  would  seem  intolerable. 

One  singular  practice  has  been  remarked  by  trav- 
ellers, that  all  the  male  natives  both  of  Mecca  and 
Jidda,  except  Bedouins,  are  tattooed  in  a  particular 
way,  which  is  performed  by  their  parents  when  they 
are  forty  days  old.  It  is  called  meshale,  and  con- 
sists of  three  long  incisions  down  both  cheeks,  and 
two  on  the  right  temple,  the  scars  of  which  remain 
through  life.  Instead  of  a  deformity,  this  is  reck- 
oned a  beauty ;  and  they  pride  themselves  on  a 
local  distinction,  which  precludes  the  other  in- 
habitants of  Hejaz  from  claiming  in  foreign  coun- 
tries the  honour  of  being  born  in  the  holy  cities. 
This  tattooing  is  very  seldom  inflicted  on  female 
children. 

In  disposition,  the  Meccawees  are  lively ;  in  the 
streets,  bazars,  and  even  in  the  mosque  itself,  they 
love  to  laugh  and  joke.  In  talking  or  dealing  with 
each  other  they  often  introduce  proverbs,  puns,  and 
witty  allusions ;  and  as  they  possess,  with  all  this 
vivacity  of  temper,  much  intellect,  sagacity,  and 
suavity  of  manners,  their  conversation  is  very  agree- 
able ;  so  that  whoever  cultivates  even  a  merely  su- 
perficial acquaintance  with  them  seldom  fails  to  be 
delighted  with  their  character.  They  have  a  natu- 
ral politeness,  which  they  display  not  only  to  stran- 
gers, but  in  their  daily  intercourse  with  each  other. 
In  exchanging  civilities  on  the  streets,  the  young 
man  kisses  the  hand  of  the  elder,  and  the  inferior 
that  of  his  superior  in  rank ;  while  the  latter  returns 
the  compliment  by  a  salute  on  the  forehead.  In- 
dividuals of  equal  rank  and  age  in  the  middle  classes 
mutually  kiss  each  other's  hand  In  the  ceremony 
of  shaking  hands,  they  lay  hold  of  the  thumb  with 
the  whole  hand,  pressing  it,  and  again  opening  the 
hand  three  or  four  times :  this  is  said  to  have  been 
the  practice  of  Mohammed. 


MECCA.  199 

The  vices  of  pilfering  and  theft  are  not  prevalent 
at  Mecca  ;  robberies  are  seldom  heard  of ;  although 
rogues  avail  themselves  of  such  opportunities  during 
the  pilgrimage,  and  are  tempted  by  the  negligence 
of  the  inhabitants  in  not  using  locks  or  bars.  The 
streets  abound  with  beggars,  who  are  entirely  sup- 
ported by  the  charity  of  strangers.  Many  adopt 
mendicity  as  a  profession,  and  have  a  ready  stock 
of  pious  sentences,  which  they  address  to  all  pas- 
sengers. Some  of  them  are  extremely  importunate, 
and  demand  alms  in  a  tone  of  authority  little  ac- 
cordant with  their  condition.  Mecca  is  called  the 
paradise  of  beggars,  and  this  may  account  both  for 
the  number  and  the  insolence  of  that  class.  The 
Meccawees  are  proud  of  being  natives  of  the  Holy 
City  and  countrymen  of  their  Prophet.  In  this  re- 
spect they  consider  themselves  favoured  beyond  all 
other  nations,  and  under  the  special  care  of  Provi- 
dence. The  consequence  is,  that  they  are  haughty 
and  intolerant  towards  Christians  and  Jews,  who 
profess  a  different  creed ;  and  though  they  do  not 
openly  persecute  them,  their  name  is  always  coupled 
with  some  opprobrious  and  contemptuous  epithet. 
The  sincerity  of  their  own  profession,  however, 
does  not  correspond  with  their  outward  zeal.  Such 
of  them  as  have  no  particular  interest  in  assuming 
the  appearance  of  extreme  strictness  are  very  neg- 
ligent in  observing  both  the  forms  and  precepts  of 
their  religion,  thinking  it  enough  to  utter  pious 
ejaculations  in  public,  or  comply  in  trivial  matters. 
In  imitation  of  the  Prophet,  their  mustachios  are  cut 
short,  and  their  beard  kept  regularly  under  the  scis- 
sors ;  in  like  manner  they  allow  the  ends  of  the  tur- 
ban to  fall  loosely  over  the  cap  :  they  put  antimony 
on  their  eyelids,  and  have  always  a  messouak,  or 
toothbrush,  in  their  hands,  because  such  was  the 
custom  of  Mohammed.  They  know  by  heart  many 
passages  of  the  Koran  and  the  sacred  traditions,  and 
quote  or  allude  to  them  every  moment ;  but  they 


200  HEJAZ. 

forget  that  these  precepts  were  given  for  rules  of 
conduct,  and  not  for  mere  repetition.  They  excuse 
themselves  from  the  duty  of  almsgiving,  by  saying 
that  Providence  ordained  them  to  receive  charity, 
not  to  bestow  it ;  and  instead  of  attending  the  Fri- 
day's prayers,  as  every  Moslem  is  bound  to  do,  the 
mosque  is  filled  chiefly  with  strangers,  while  the  in- 
habitants are  seen  smoking  in  their  shops.  The 
law  prohibiting  wine  is  evaded,  so  as  to  become  al- 
most a  dead  letter.  Intoxicating  liquors  are  sold  at 
the  very  gates  of  the  temple  ;  neither  the  sanctity 
of  the  place  nor  the  solemn  injunctions  of  the  Koran 
can  deter  them  from  indulging  in  all  the  excesses 
which  are  the  usual  consequences  of  drunkenness. 
The  Indian  fleet  imports  large  quantities  of  raki  in 
barrels  ;  and  when  mixed  with  sugar  and  an  extract 
of  cinnamon,  it  is  sold  under  the  name  of  cinnamon- 
water.  The  rich  merchants,  ulemas,  and  grandees 
are  in  the  habit  of  drinking  this  liquor,  which  they 
persuade  themselves  is  neither  wine  nor  brandy,  and 
therefore  not  prohibited  by  the  law.  The  less 
wealthy  inhabitants,  who  cannot  purchase  so  dear  a 
commodity,  use  a  fermented  liquor  made  of  raisins, 
while  the  lower  classes  drink  bouza.  Tobacco, 
hashish,  and  other  intoxicating  substances  are 
openly  smoked,  and  cards  played  in  almost  every 
coff'ee-house. 

The  inhabitants  of  Mecca  have  but  two  kinds  of 
employment — trade  and  the  service  of  the  BeituUah. 
Many  of  the  latter  calling,  which  may  be  said  to  in- 
clude one-half  of  the  population,  engage  privately  in 
commercial  affairs  ;  but  the  greater  proportion  have 
no  other  support  than  their  wages,  or  what  they 
can  extort  from  the  charity  of  pilgrims.  The  most 
impudent,  idle,  and  worthless  individuals  adopt  the 
profession  of  guides  ;  and  as  there  is  no  want  of 
these  qualities,  nor  of  a  sufficient  demand  for  their 
services,  this  class  of  rogues  is  very  numerous. 
They  besiege  strangers  with  their  importunities 


MECCA.  201 

from  mom  to  night ;  invite  themselves  to  eat  and 
drink  at  their  expense  ;  and  generally  contrive  in  a 
month  to  wheedle  from  the  simplicity  or  piety  of 
their  employers  as  much  as  will  suffice  for  the  ex- 
pense of  their  families  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year.  The  position  of  Mecca,  as  it  is  not  situated 
in  the  direct  route  to  any  country  of  consequence, 
and  surrounded  with  perpetual  sterility,  is  unfavour- 
able to  commerce  ;  and  but  for  its  being  the  centre 
of  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  Moslem  w^orld, 
it  must  have  long  ago  sunk  into  poverty  and  insig- 
nificance. In  ordinary  times  there  is  a  consider- 
able trade  with  the  Bedouins  and  inhabitants  of 
Nejed,  who  are  in  want  of  India  goods,  drugs,  and 
articles  of  dress.  The  less  opulent  merchants  usu- 
ally employ  their  capital  in  the  traffic  of  corn  and 
provisions ;  and,  though  the  Pasha  of  Egypt  has 
made  these  articles  a  strict  monopoly  of  his  own, 
the  grain-dealers,  after  paying  freight,  have  usually 
a  profit  of  fifteen  or  twenty  per  cent.  The  consump- 
tion of  this  species  of  commodity,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, is  much  greater  in  Arabia  than  in  any  of  the 
surrounding  countries  ;  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
living  almost  entirely  on  wheat,  barley,  lentils,  or 
rice  ;  using  few  vegetables,  but  a  great  deal  of  butter 
and  spicery. 

The  natural  disadvantages  of  the  place  are  coun- 
terbalanced by  a  source  of  opulence  possessed  by 
no  other  city  in  the  world.  During  the  pilgrimage, 
and  for  some  months  preceding  it,  the  magazines 
of  foreign  commerce  are  opened,  as  it  were,  by  thou- 
sands of  wealthy  hajjis,  who  bring  the  productions 
of  every  Moslem  country  to  Jidda,  either  by  sea  or 
across  the  desert,  exchanging  them  with  one  an- 
other, or  receiving  from  the  native  merchants  the 
goods  of  India  and  Arabia,  which  the  latter  have 
accumulated  the  whole  year  in  their  warehouses. 
At  this  period  Mecca  becomes  one  of  the  largest 
fairs  in  the  East,  and  certainly  the  most  interesting, 


202  HEJAZ. 

from  the  variety  of  nations  that  frequent  it.  The 
value  of  the  exports  is,  however,  greatly  superior 
to  that  of  the  imports,  and  requires  a  considerable 
balance  in  dollars  and  sequins,  part  of  which  find 
their  way  to  Yemen  and  India,  and  about  one-fourth 
remains  in  the  hands  of  the  Meccawees.  So  profit- 
able is  this  trade,  that  goods  brought  from  Jidda 
yield  a  clear  gain,  varying  from  thirty  to  fifty  per 
cent. 

Much  profit  is  also  fraudulently  made  ;  great  num- 
bers of  pilgrims  are  ignorant  of  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage, and  are  in  consequence  placed  at  the  mercy 
of  brokers  or  interpreters,  who  are  generally  In- 
dians, and  never  fail  to  make  them  pay  dearly  for 
their  services.  It  is  a  practice  with  dealers,  when 
they  wish  to  conceal  their  business  from  others,  to 
join  their  right  hands  under  the  corner  of  the  gown 
or  wide  sleeve  ;  where,  by  touching  the  different 
joints  of  the  fingers,  they  note  the  numerals,  and 
thus  silently  conclude  the  bargain.  The  wealth  that 
annually  flows  into  Mecca  might  render  it  one  of 
the  richest  cities  in  the  East,  were  it  not  for  the 
prodigal  and  dissipated  habits  of  the  people,  espe- 
cially of  the  lower  orders,  who  are  loose  and  disor- 
derly spendthrifts,  squandering  away  their  gains  in 
dress,  gluttony,  and  the  grossest  gratifications. 
Marriage  and  circumcision  feasts  are  celebrated  in 
a  very  splendid  style  ;  so  that  a  poor  man  will  some- 
times in  one  day  throw  away  the  expenditure  of 
half  a  year. 

It  is  owing  to  their  dependence  on  foreign  com- 
merce that  the  arts  and  sciences  are  so  little  cul- 
tivated at  Mecca.  Travellers  have  remarked  how 
few  artisans  inhabit  its  streets — such  as  masons, 
carpenters,  tailors,  or  shoemakers ;  and  these  are 
inferior  in  skill  to  the  same  class  in  other  parts  of 
the  country.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  potteries 
and  die-houses,  there  is  not  a  single  manufactory. 
There  are  braziers  for  working  in  copper,  and  tin- 


MECCA.  203 

smiths,  who  make  small  vessels  for  the  hajjis  to 
carry  away  some  of  the  Zemzem  water  ;  but  not  a 
man  is  to  be  found  capable  of  engraving  an  inscrip- 
tion, or  fabricating  a  lock  and  key.  All  the  doors 
are  fastened  with  large  wooden  bolts  ;  and  the  skill 
of  the  cutler  is  only  adequate  to  the  manufacture 
of  matchlocks,  lances,  and  halberds,  which  are 
forged  in  the  rudest  manner  ;  a  hole  in  the  ground 
serving  for  a  furnace,  and  one  or  two  goat-skins, 
waved  before  the  fire,  supplying  the  place  of  bel- 
lows. The  swords,  watches,  and  other  hardware  to 
be  found  in  the  bazars  are  imported  from  Europe. 
In  different  shops  are  sold  strings  of  coral  and  false 
pearls,  rosaries  made  of  aloe,  sandal,  or  kalambar 
wood,  brilliant  necklaces  of  cut  carnelions,  seals, 
rings,  and  similar  jewelry;  but  all  these*are  kept 
by  Indian  merchants.  Here,  too,  are  to  be  seen 
grocers,  druggists,  tobacconists,  haberdashers,  san- 
dal-makers, and  a  great  many  dealers  in  old  clothes. 
There  are  a  few  large  flour-mills  worked  by  horses  ; 
but  the  common  practice  is  to  use  hand-mills,  which 
are  usually  turned  by  women  or  the  slaves  of  the 
family. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  learning  can  flourish 
in  a  place  where  every  mind  is  occupied  in  the 
search  of  gain  or  of  paradise ;  and  in  this  respect 
Mecca  is  perhaps  inferior  to  any  city  of  equal  popu- 
lation in  the  East.  The  whole  knowledge  of  the 
inhabitants  is  confined  to  reading  the  Koran,  and 
writing  but  indifferently.  There  are  no  public  libra- 
ries, and  not  a  single  scliool  or  seminary  ;  the  mosque 
being  the  only  place  where  boys  are  taught  the  ele- 
mentary parts  of  education.  Children  from  their 
infancy  learn  to  repeat  prayers  and  ceremonies  ;  but 
this  is  merely  to  make  money  by  officiating  as  guides 
to  the  pilgrims.  The  crafts  of  bookselling  and  book- 
binding are  of  course  unknown.  The  language  of 
the  Meccawees,  however,  is  still  more  pure  and  ele- 
gant^ both  in  phraseology  and  pronunciation,  than 


204  HEJAZ. 

that  of  any  other  town  where  Arabic  is  spoken.  It 
approaches  nearest  to  the  old  written  Arabic,  and  is 
free  from  those  affectations  and  perversions  of  the 
original  sense  which  abound  in  other  provinces.  As 
the  sciences  form  no  lucrative  profession,  they  are 
in  consequence  totally  neglected.  The  astronomer 
of  the  mosque  learns  to  know  the  exact  time  of  the 
sun's  passing  the  meridian,  to  regulate  the  hours 
of  prayer ;  and  the  few  druggists,  or  venders  of 
medicine,  deal  in  nothing  but  miraculous  balsams 
and  infallible  elixirs ;  their  potions  are  all  sweet  and 
agreeable,  while  the  musk  or  aloes-wood,  which 
they  burn  in  their  shops,  diffuses  a  delicious  odour 
that  tends  to  establish  their  reputation. 

As  for  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  Mecca,  trav- 
ellers have  found  it  very  difficult  to  calculate  with 
any  degree  of  certainty ;  registers  are  never  kept, 
and  even  the  amount  of  houses  is  not  ascertained. 
In  former  times  it  is  said  to  have  contained  more 
than  100,000  souls  ;  and  when  sacked  by  the  Kar- 
mathian  chief  in  936,  his  ferocious  soldiers  are  sup- 
posed to  have  put  more  than  30,000  to  the  sword. 
Ali  Bey  reckoned  that  it  did  not  shelter  more  than 
from  16,000  to  18,000 ;  Burckhardt,  a  later  author- 
ity, gives  as  the  result  of  his  inquiries,  for  the  popu- 
lation of  the  city  and  suburbs  between  25,000  and 
30,000  stationary  inhabitants,  besides  from  2000  to 
4000  Abyssinians  and  black  slaves.  The  dwellings, 
however,  are  capable  of  containing  three  times  that 
number,  some  quarters  of  the  suburbs  being  entirely 
deserted  and  in  ruins  ;  so  that,  unless  the  zeal  of  the 
hajjis  revive,  the  capital  of  Islam  must  gradually 
sink  into  decay. 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      205 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

The  Pilgrim-caravans — Their  different  Routes — Description  and 
Number  of  Pilgrims— The  Mahmal — The  Ihram— Duties  of 
the  Pilgrims  on  arriving  at  Mecca — Walk  to  Safra  and  Omra 
— Journey  to  Arafat— Sermon  of  the  Cadi — Curious  Appear- 
ance of  the  Scene— Stoning  of  the  Devil — The  Feast  of  Sa- 
crifice— Return  of  the  Procession  to  Mecca — Visit  to  the  Inte- 
rior of  the  Kaaba — Departure  of  the  Caravans — Altered 
Appearance  of  the  City — Holy  Places  round  Mecca — Pil- 
grimage to  Medina — Description  of  the  City — Its  Inhabitants 
— Their  Character  and  Occupation — The  Mosque  of  the 
Prophet — The  famous  Tomb  of  Mohammed — Ceremonies 
required  of  the  Hajjis — Servants  and  Revenues  of  the  Mosque 
— Sacred  Places  near  Medina — Return  of  the  Pilgrims — Bedr 
— Suez — Convent  of  St.  Catherine — Regulations  and  Hospi- 
tality of  the  Monks — Places  of  Superstitious  Resort  about 
Mount  Sinai— The  Cave  of  Elijah— The  Rock  of  Meribah— 
Gebel  Mokkateb  or  the  Written  Mountains— The  Convent 
near  Tor — Gebel  Narkous  or  Mountain  of  the  Bell. 

The  law  of  the  Koran,  as  is  well  known,  enjoins 
on  every  Mussulman,  who  has  the  means,  to  per- 
form a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  once  at  least  in  his  life. 
Dulhajja,  as  the  name  imports,  is  the  month  pecu- 
liarly set  apart  for  the  performance  of  this  solem- 
nity. To  those  whom  indispensable  occupations 
confine  at  home,  the  law  permits  a  substitution  of 
prayers;  but  even  this  is  often  evaded,  and  the 
duty  executed  by  commission  at  the  expense  of  a 
few  dollars.  Formerly,  when  devotional  zeal  was 
more  ardent,  the  difficulties  of  the  journey  were 
held  to  increase  the  merit  of  the  act ;  but  at  pres- 
ent many,  instead  of  encountering  the  perils  of  des- 
erts and  robbers  by  land,  adopt  the  more  cheap  and 
eavy  mode  of  traveUing  by  sea.     The  regular  haj- 

VOL.  II.— S 


206      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

caravans  are  six  or  seven  in  number,  though  they 
do  not  always  make  their  appearance  tog'ether,  nor 
even  perform  the  visit  annually.  That  from  Syria, 
which  used  to  be  accompanied  by  the  caliphs  in  per- 
son, sets  out  from  Constantinople,  and  collects  the 
pilgrims  from  Northern  Asia  until  it  reaches  Da- 
mascus. During  the  Avhole  route,  for  the  sake  of 
safety  and  convenience,  it  is  attended  from  town  to 
town  by  the  armed  force  of  the  district.  From  Da- 
mascus to  Medina  it  moves  with  great  pomp  across 
the  desert, — a  journey  of  thirty  days  ;  and  here  a 
change  of  camels,  for  which  the  Bedouins  contract, 
is  necessary ;  the  Anatolian  breed  being  unable  to 
bear  the  fatigues  of  such  an  expedition.  The  Pasha 
of  Damascus,  or  one  of  his  principal  officers,  always 
attends  it,  and  gives  the  signal  for  encamping  and 
departing  by  firing  a  musket.  The  different  classes 
of  hajjis  know  their  exact  stations,  and  always 
place  their  tents  according  to  their  town  or  prov- 
ince. At  every  stage  is  a  castle  or  storehouse  for 
provisions,  with  a  small  garrison,  and  a  large  tank 
at  which  the  camels  water.  These  stations  are  sel- 
dom farther  distant  from  each  other  than  a  march 
of  eleven  or  twelve  hours.  The  usual  time  of  trav- 
elling is  from  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  to  an 
hour  or  two  after  sunrise  next  day,  torches  being 
lighted  during  the  night.  The  Egyptian  caravan, 
which  starts  from  Cairo,  is  under  the  same  regula- 
tions as  the  Syrian.  Its  route  is  more  dangerous 
and  fatiguing,  lying  by  Suez  and  Akaba,  along  the 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  through  the  territories  of  wild 
and  warlike  tribes,  who  frequently  attack  it  by  open 
force.  The  Persian  haj  departs  from  Bagdad,  and 
traverses  Nejed  by  Deraiah.  As  the  Persians  are 
reckoned  notorious  heretics,  and  are  generally  per- 
sons of  property,  they  are  subjected  to  severe  im- 
positions, and  have  occasionally  been  prohibited 
from  entering  the  Holy  City.  The  Moggrebin  cara- 
van brings  the  pilgrims  from  Barbary  and  Morocco. 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      207 

It  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  relative  of  the  king, 
and  proceeds  from  his  capital  by  slow  marches  to- 
wards Tunis  and  Tripoli,  thence  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores  to  Alexandria  or  Cairo,  collecting  the 
hajjis  in  every  district  through  which  it  passes.  Ye- 
men sent  two  caravans  ;  one  from  Saade,  which 
took  its  course  along  the  mountains  to  Tai'f,  and  the 
other  travelled  by  the  coast,  taking  up  such  of  the 
Persians  and  Indians  as  had  arrived  in  the  harbours 
of  the  country.  A  caravan  of  Indian  pilgrims  is  said 
to  have  started  from  Muscat  and  travelled  through 
Nejed  ;  but  this  route,  it  appears,  has  been  long  dis- 
continued. Of  late  the  greater  portion  of  the  hajjis 
do  not  travel  with  the  regular  caravans,  but  arrive 
by  sea  at  Jidda.  Those  from  the  north,  including 
Turks,  Tartars,  Syrians,  Moors,  and  Africans,  em- 
bark at  Suez  or  Cosseir;  but  the  wretched  and 
crowded  state  of  the  vessels  renders  the  passage 
disagreeable  and  often  dangerous.  Crowds  of  devo- 
tees arrive  in  the  opposite  direction  from  Yemen, 
the  borders  of  Persia,  Java,  Sumatra,  and  the  distant 
realms  watered  by  the  Indus  :  these  comprise  Hin- 
doos and  Malays — people  from  Cashmere  and  Guze- 
rat — Arabs  from  Bussora,  Oman,  and  Hadramaut — 
natives  of  Nubia  and  Upper  Egypt — and  those  from 
the  coasts  of  Melinda  and  IMombaza.  All  Moslems 
dwelling  near  the  ocean  are  certain  of  finding,  to- 
wards the  period  of  the  haj,  ships  departing  from 
some  neighbouring  harbour  to  the  Red  Sea  ;  but  the 
greater  number  come  with  the  regular  Indian  fleet. 
From  all  these  regions  swarms  of  beggars  flock  to 
Mecca ;  they  get  a  free  passage  from  charitable  in- 
dividuals among  their  own  countrymen,  or  their  ex- 
pense is  defrayed  by  those  who  employ  them  as 
proxies  in  performing  the  indispensable  duties  of  the 
pilgrimage.  But  on  landing  they  are  thrown  en- 
tirely on  the  benevolence  of  the  hajjis,  and  the  alms 
they  collect  must  serve  to  carry  them  back  to  their 
homes.    All  the  poorer  class  of  Indians  turn  mendi- 


208  THE    MOHAMMEDAN   PILGRIMAGE. 

cants  ;  and  their  wretched  appearance  would  make 
them  worthy  objects  of  commiseration,  were  it  not 
known  that  they  assume  a  tone  and  character  of 
outward  misery,  because  it  ensures  them  a  subsist- 
ence without  labour. 

None  of  these  paupers  bear  a  more  respectable 
character  for  industry  than  the  negroes  of  Tekrouris, 
as  they  are  called,  who  employ  themselves  as  por- 
ters for  carrying  goods,  cleaning  the  court-yards,  or 
fetching  firewood  from  the  neighbouring  mountains. 
Some  of  them  manufacture  small  baskets  and  mats 
of  date-leaves,  or  little  hearths  of  clay  painted  yel- 
low and  red,  which  they  sell  to  the  hajjis,  Avho  boil 
their  coffeepots  upon  them.  Others  serve  as  water- 
carriers,  or  prepare  bouza,  or  occupy  themselves  in 
any  species  of  manual  labour. 

Among  the  pilgrims  are  to  be  found  dervises  of 
every  sect  and  order  in  the  Turkish  empire ;  many 
of  them  are  madmen,  or  at  least  assuming  the  ap- 
pearance of  insanity ;  and  as  the  Mohammedans 
regard  them  as  saints  or  inspired  beings,  sent  as  a 
blessing  to  them  from  Heaven,  they  are  much  re- 
spected by  the  devotees,  who  scruple  not  to  fill  their 
pockets  with  money.  The  behaviour  of  some  of 
them  is  indecent,  and  so  violent,  that  many  willingly 
give  them  a  trifle  to  escape  from  their  importuni- 
ties. Most  of  the  pilgrims  that  arrive  in  detach- 
ments and  before  the  caravans,  are  professed  mer- 
chants, who  occupy  the  interval  very  pleasantly  in 
disposing  of  their  wares,  praying,  smoking,  reading 
the  Koran,  enjoying  the  gratifications  of  sense,  and 
anticipating  the  happiness  of  futurity.  Except  men- 
dicants, almost  every  hajji  combines  with  his  reli- 
gious duties  some  little  mercantile  adventure,  with 
a  view  to  lessen  his  expenses.  The  Moggrebins, 
for  example,  bring  their  red  bonnets  and  woollen 
cloaks ;  the  Western  Turks,  shoes  and  slippers, 
hardware,  embroidered  stuffs,  sweetmeats,  amber, 
trinkets  of  European  manufacture,  knit  silk  purses, 


THE    MOHA.MMEDAN    PILGRIMAGE,  209 

and  other  small  wares ;  the  Anatolians  bring  car- 
pets, silks,  and  Angora  shawls  ;  the  Persians,  Cash- 
mere shawls  and  large  silk  handkerchiefs ;  the  Af- 
ghans, toothbrushes  made  of  the  spongy  boughs  of 
a  tree  in  Bokhara,  yellow  beads,  and  plain  coarse 
shawls  of  their  own  manufacture  ;  the  Indians  im- 
port the  numerous  productions  of  their  rich  and 
extensive  regions ;  and  the  people  of  Yemen  bring 
snakes  for  the  Persian  pipes,  sandals,  and  various 
articles  in  leather. 

In  general,  the  regular  caravans  have  fixed  periods 
for  their  arrival.  Those  from  Syria  and  Egypt  unite 
their  routes  at  Bedr,  whence  they  proceed  to  Mecca 
at  a  short  distance  from  each  other.  The  approach 
of  the  foremost  is  announced  by  a  horseman,  who 
comes  galloping  through  the  town  to  the  governor's 
house ;  a  prize  being  always  awarded  to  him  who 
brings  the  first  tidings  of  its  safety. 

The  pomp  and  magnificence  of  this  moving  so- 
lemnity are  still  considerable,  though  much  dimin- 
ished since  the  time  of  the  caliphs,  both  in  point  of 
splendour  and  attendance.  When  Solyman  per- 
formed the  pilgrimage  (A.  D.  716),  900  camels  were 
employed  in  transporting  his  wardrobe  alone.  Ma- 
hadi,  besides  the  vast  sums  he  expended  in  presents, 
built  fine  houses  at  every  station  between  Bagdad 
and  Mecca,  and  caused  them  to  be  splendidly  fur- 
nished. He  was  the  first  caliph  that  carried  snow- 
water with  him  to  cool  his  sherbet  on  the  road;  a 
luxury  in  which  he  was  imitated  by  many  of  his 
successors.  Haroun  al  Raschid,  who  performed  the 
haj  nine  times,  spent  in  one  of  his  visits  nearly  a 
million  and  a  half  of  gold  dinars  (693,750/.)  in 
presents ;  in  another,  he  and  his  wife  Zobeide  ac- 
complished the  journey  from  Bagdad  (nearly  1000 
miles)  on  foot ;  but  the  merit  must  have  been  les- 
sened, as  the  whole  road  was  covered  daily  with  fine 
carpets  on  which  they  walked.  The  retinue  of  the 
mother  of  Mostasem,  who  visited  Mecca  in  1231, 

S2 


210      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

was  composed  of  120,000  camels.  On  a  similar 
occasion  the  equipage  of  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  con- 
sisted of  500  of  these  animals  for  the  transport  solely 
of  sweetmeats  and  confectionary  ;  280  for  pomegra- 
nates, almonds,  and  other  fruits  ;  besides  having  his 
travelling-larder  provided  with  1000  geese  and  3000 
fowls. 

In  1814,  the  Syrian  caravan,  which  was  reckoned 
small,  amounted  only  to  4000  or  5000  persons,  and 
was  attended  by  15,000  camels.  The  Barbary  ca- 
ravan sometimes  contained  40,000  men  ;  but  it  has 
not  of  late  exceeded  6000  or  8000.  That  from  Egypt 
used  to  be  extremely  numerous  :  Barthema  states 
that  when  he  was  at  Mecca  it  had  64,000  camels.  In 
1814,  it  consisted  principally  of  Mohammed  All's 
troops,  with  very  few  pilgrims  ;  but  in  1816,  a  single 
grandee  of  Cairo  joined  the  haj  with  110  camels  for 
the  transport  of  his  baggage  and  retinue  ;  and  his 
travelling  expenses  alone,  Burckhardt  supposes, 
could  not  have  been  less  than  10,000/.  The  wife  of 
Ali  had  a  truly  royal  equipage,  comprehending  500 
beasts  of  burden.  The  tents  of  the  pubUc  women 
and  dancing-girls  were  among  the  most  splendid  in 
this  caravan.  Females  are  not  excluded  from  per- 
forming the  pilgrimage  ;  but  the  law  prescribes  that 
they  shall  be  married  women,  and  accompanied  by 
their  husbands  or  some  very  near  relation.  Rich 
old  widows,  and  such  as  lose  their  husbands  by  the 
way,  are  provided  with  delils  or  guides,  who  facili- 
tate their  progress  through  the  sacred  territory,  and 
act  also  in  a  matrimonial  capacity ;  but  these  unions 
are  only  temporary,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  their 
devotions  the  man  must  divorce  his  companion, 
otherwise  the  marriage  would  be  considered  binding. 

There  is  one  distinction  formerly  common  to  all 
large  caravans,  but  now  used  only  by  the  Syrian  and 
Egyptian ;  each  of  these  has  its  holy  camel,  carry- 
ing on  its  back  the  mahmal  with  presents  for  the 
Kaaba,  and  which  also  serves  the  purpose  of  a  sign 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      211 

or  banner  to  their  respective  companies.  This  ap- 
pendage is  mintftely  described  by  Maundrell  and 
D'Ohsson  as  a  high  hollow  wooden  frame,  in  the 
shape  of  a  cone,  having  a  pyramidal  top  covered 
with  fine  silk  brocade,  and  adorned  with  ostrich-fea- 
thers. A  small  book  of  prayers  and  charms  is 
placed  in  the  middle,  wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  silk. 
It  was  not  used  by  the  caliphs,  having  been  first 
introduced  (A.  D.  1274)  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
Since  that  time  the  different  Mussulman  sovereigns 
have  considered  the  mahmal  as  a  privilege,  and  a 
badge  of  their  own  royalty.*  On  the  return  of  the 
caravans,  the  sacred  camel,  which  is  never  after 
■employed  in  labour,  and  the  book  of  prayers,  are 
objects  of  great  veneration  among  the  lower  class, 
or  such  as  have  not  been  at  Mecca ;  men  and  women 
flock  in  crowds  to  kiss  it,  and  obtain  a  blessing  by 
rubbing  their  foreheads  upon  it. 

The  awful  sanctity  of  Mecca  and  its  territory 
renders  it  necessary  that  every  traveller,  whether 
on  a  religious  visit  or  not,  shall  undergo  a  certain 
transformation  in  dress  the  moment  he  enters  the 
Belled  el  Haram,  or  Holy  Land  of  Islam. f     From 

*  "  The  mahmal  (of  Damascus)  is  a  large  pavilion  of  black 
silk,  pitched  upon  the  back  of  a  very  great  camel,  and  spreading 
Its  curtains  all  round  about  the  beast  down  to  tlie  ground.  This 
Hcamel  wants  not  also  his  ornaments  of  large  ropes  of  beads,  fish- 
shells,  fox-tails,  and  other  such  fantastic  finery,  hanged  upon 
his  head,  neck,  and  legs.  All  this  is  designed  for  the  Alcoran, 
which  thus  rides  in  state  both  to  and  from  Mecca,  and  is  accom- 
panied with  a  rich  new  carpet  sent  every  year  by  the  grand 
seignior  for  the  covering  of  Mahomet's  tomb, — having  the  old 
one  brought  back  in  return  for  it,  which  is  esteemed  of  an  ines- 
timable value,  after  having  been  so  long  next  neighbour  to  the 
Prophet's  rotten  bones." — MaundrelVs  Travels. 

t  The  Belled  el  Haram  is  properly  the  sacred  district  round 
Mecca,  which  has  the  privileges  of  a  sanctuary  or  asylum, — the 
law  having  forbidden  the  shedding  of  blood,  kiUing  of  game,  or 
cutting  of  trees  within  it.  This  sanctity,  however,  is  but  little 
regarded ;  criminals  are  slain  without  scruple, — persons  have 
oeen  assassmated  even  undej  the  wails  of  the  Kaaba,  -aiid  bat 


212      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

whatever  quarter  the  hajjis  arrive,  they  are  instantly- 
required  to  strip  themselves  nidced,  throw  away 
their  garments,  and  put  on  the  ihram  or  pilgrim's 
cloak,  which  consists  of  two  pieces  of  linen,  woollen, 
or  cotton  cloth  ;  one  of  which  is  wrapped  round  the 
loins,  and  the  other  thrown  over  the  neck  and  shoul- 
ders, so  as  to  leave  part  of  the  right  arm  uncovered. 
The  law  ordains  that  there  shall  be  no  seam  in  it, 
no  silk,  nor  ornament  of  any  kind.  White  Indian 
cambric,  that  being  considered  the  preferable  colour, 
is  generally  employed  for  the  purpose ;  buft  rich 
hajjis  use  Cashmere  shawls  without  flowered  bor- 
ders. In  assuming  it,  certain  ceremonies  are  ob- 
served ;  such  as  making  a  general  ablution,  saying 
a  prayer  while  naked,  taking  a  few  steps  in  the 
direction  of  Mecca,  and  uttering  pious  invocations, 
called  telbi. 

The  ihram,  whether  taken  in  summer  or  in  winter, 
is  equally  inconvenient  and  prejudicial  to  health. 
The  head  remains  totally  unprotected,  and  exposed 
to  the  sun's  rays  :  the  instep  of  the  foot  must  like- 
wise be  uncovered  ;  so  that  those  who  wear  shoes 
instead  of  sandals  cut  a  piece  out  of  the  upper  lea- 
ther. The  northern  Moslem,  accustomed  to  thick 
woollen  clothes,  find  it  a  severe  experiment  on  their 
religious  zeal  to  remain  sometimes  for  months,  night 
and  day,  with  no  other  vestment  than  this  thin  garb. 
The  ihram  of  the  women  consists  of  a  cloak,  so 
close  that  not  even  their  eyes  can  be  seen.  Old  age 
and  disease  are  excuses  for  keeping  the  head  cov- 

tles,  both  with  infantry  and  cavalry,  fought  within  the  enclo- 
sure of  the  Temple.  The  Umits  of  this  sacred  territory  are  dif- 
ferently represented.  At  present  it  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
bounded  within  those  positions  where  the  ihram  is  assumed  in 
approaching  Mecca,  viz.  Hadda,  on  the  west ;  Asfan,  on  the  north ; 
Wady  Mohrem,  on  the  east ;  and  Zat  Ork,  on  the  south.  Ali 
Bey  mistakes  when  he  considered  this  district  a  particular  prov- 
ince. Medma  has  the  same  privileges,  but  they  are  held  in  aa 
little  veneration. 


THE    MOHAMMEDAN    PILGRIMAGE  213 

ered;  but  this  indulgence  must  be  purcnased  by 
giving  alms  to  the  poor.  Umbrellas  are  not  forbid- 
den, and  are  used  by  most  of  the  visiters  from  colder 
climates ;  but  the  natives  of  the  south  either  brave 
the  sun's  rays,  or  screen  themselves  by  means  of  a 
rag  tied  to  a  stick.  Though  many  have  died  in  con- 
sequence of  this  exposure,  nobody  utters  a  com- 
plaint. There  are  no  restrictions  now  as  to  parti- 
cular diet ;  but  the  mohrem,  as  the  vested  pilgrim  is 
called,  is  enjoined  to  behave  decently,  not  to  curse 
or  quarrel,  nor  to  kill  any  animal,  not  even  the  ver- 
min that  may  infest  his  own  person ;  although,  ac- 
cording to  Pitts,  "  if  they  cannot  well  be  endured 
any  longer,  it  is  lawful  to  remove  them  from  one 
part  of  the  body  to  another."  The  laxity  of  modern 
times  occasionally  dispenses  altogether  with  the 
ceremony  of  the  maharmo,  especially  among  the 
servants  and  camel-drivers. 

All  the  caravans,  as  they  arrive,  pass  through  the 
town  in  procession,  accompanied  by  their  guards  of 
soldiers,  with  martial  music.  The  equipage  of  the 
emirs  is  very  splendid.  They  are  mounted  in  pa- 
lanquins or  taktrouans, — a  kind  of  close  litter  or 
cage,  carried  by  two  camels,  one  before  and  the 
other  behind.  The  heads  of  the  camels  are  deco- 
rated with  feathers,  tassels,  and  bells ;  the  streets 
are  lined  with  people,  who  as  they  move  along  greet 
them  with  loud  acclamations. 

On  entering  Mecca,  the  first  duty  of  the  pilgrim  is 
to  visit  the  mosque  immediately ;  and  this  injunc- 
tion applies  to  all  strangers  whatever.  The  pre- 
scribed ceremonies  are,  first  to  repeat  certain  prayers 
in  different  parts  of  the  Temple ;  namely,  at  the 
entrance  under  the  colonnade,  two  rikats  and  four 
prostrations  are  addressed  to  the  Deity  in  thankful- 
ness for  having  reached  the  holy  spot,  and  in  saluta- 
tion of  the  mosque  itself:  then,  advancing  into  the 
court,  certain  ejaculations  are  uttered  while  passing 
under  the  insulated  arch  in  front  of  the  Kaaba,  and 


214      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

two  rikats  are  pronounced  opposite  the  black  stone  ; 
at  the  conclusion  of  which  it  is  touched  with  the 
right  hand,  or  kissed,  if  the  pressure  of  the  crowd 
will  admit.  The  devotee  then  performs  the  towaf, 
keeping  the  Kaaba  on  his  left-hand  ;  this  ceremony, 
which  was  done  by  the  Pagan  Arabs  in  a  state  of 
nudity,  is  repeated  seven  times,  the  three  first  in  a 
quick  pace,  in  imitation  of  the  Prophet ;  each  circuit 
is  accompanied  with  prescribed  prayers  and  a  salu- 
tation of  the  black  stone.  This  done,  after  a  few 
more  rikats,  he  proceeds  to  the  Zemzen  Well,  in 
honour  of  which  he  addresses  some  pious  ejacula- 
tions, and  then  drinks  as  much  water  as  he  wishes 
or  can  get.  Some  have  it  poured  over  them  in 
bucketfuls,  "  and  then,"  says  Barthema,  "the  fools 
think  their  sins  are  washed  into  the  well."  Others 
swallow  it  so  unreasonably,  that  they  lie  for  hours 
extended  on  the  pavement,  while  their  flesh  breaks 
out  into  pimples :  and  this,  as  Pitts  wittily  re- 
marks, they  call  "  the  purging  of  their  spiritual  cor- 
ruptions." These  are  the  different  ceremonies  ob- 
served within  the  Temple,  which  the  pilgrims  repeat 
after  their  guides. 

'  The  next  ceremony  that  the  hajji  has  to  perform 
is  the  sai,  or  holy  walk  between  Safa  and  Meroua ; 
which  is  done  along  a  level  street  about  six  hundred 
paces  in  length,  and  terminated  at  each  end  by  a  stone 
platform  covered  with  open  arches,  and  ascended  by 
a  flight  of  steps.  This  perambulation,  which  for  a 
short  space  must  be  run,  is  to  be  repeated  seven 
times ;  prayers  are  incessantly  recited  in  a  loud 
voice  ;  and  on  the  two  platforms  the  face  must  be 
turned  to  the  mosque.  A  third  ceremony  is  that  of 
shaving  the  head ;  and  the  barbers,  whose  shops 
abound  in  the  vicinity  of  Meroua,  during  the  opera- 
tion utter  a  particular  prayer,  which  the  hajjis  repeat 
after  them.  This  religious  tonsure  is  followed  by 
the  walk  to  Omra,  a  place  about  an  hour  and  a  half's 
distance  from  Mecca,  where  the  pilgrim  prays  two 


THE    MOHAMMEDAN    PILGRIMAGE.  215 

rikats  in  a  small  chapel ;  and  must  chant  the  telbi  or 
pious  ejaculations  all  the  way.  After  this  the  towaf 
and  sai  must  be  again  performed,  which  closes  the 
preliminary  ceremonies.  Some  have  only  part  of 
the  head  shaven  before  the  visit  to  Omra,  and  the 
rest  completed  immediately  afterward.  The  walk 
round  the  Kaaba  may  be  repeated  as  often  as  the 
pilgrim  thinks  fit :  and  the  more  frequently  the  more 
meritorious.  Most  foreigners  do  it  twice  daily, — in 
the  evening  and  before  daybreak.  - 

When   all   the   necessary  rites  have  been  gone 
through  at  Mecca,  the  whole  concourse  of  visiters 
repair  in  a  body  to  Mount  Arafat,  which  is  the  grand 
day  of  the  pilgrimage.     This  mountain  is  a  principal 
object  of  Moslem  veneration ;  and  some  even  assert, 
that  a  pilgrimage  to  it  would  be  equally  meritorious, 
though  the  Kaaba  ceased  to  exist.     Tradition  says 
it  was  here  that  the  common  father  of  mankind  met 
Eve  after  the  long  separation  of  200  years  conse- 
quent on  the  Fall ;  that  he  built  the  chapel  on  its 
summit  before  he  retired  with  his  wife  to  the  island 
of  Ceylon ;  and  was  there  instructed  by  the  angel 
Gabriel  how  to  adore  his  Creator ;  the  spot  still 
bears  the  name  of  Modaa  Seidna  Adam,  or  Place  of 
Prayer  of  our  Lord  Adam.     It  was  here,  too,  that 
Mohammed  is  said  to  have  addressed  his  followers, 
— a  practice  in  which  he  was  imitated  by  the  caliphs, 
who  preached  on   the   same  spot  when  they  per- 
formed the  haj.     This  hill,  or  rather  granite  rock, 
which  is  about  200  feet  high,  stands  about  six  hours' 
journey  to  the  eastward  of  Mecca,  at  the  foot  of  a 
higher  mountain,  in  a  sandy  plain  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a  league  in  diameter.     On  the  eastern  side 
broad  stone  steps  lead  to  the  top,  and  these  are  cov- 
ered with  innumerable  handkerchiefs  for  receiving 
the  pious  gifts  which  are  claimed  by  the  families  of 
the  Koreish,  in  whose  territory  this  sacred  eminence 
stands. 
On  the  Day  of  Arafat,  or  Feast  of  Sacrifice  as  it  is 


ai6  THE    MOHAMMEDAN    PILGRIMAGE. 

called,  and  which  can  only  be  performed  at  a  certain 
time,  the  pilgrims  take  their  journey,  some  on  ca- 
mels, others  on  mules  or  asses;  but  the  greater 
number  walk  barefooted,  which  is  esteemed  the  most 
pious  mode  of  travelling.  The  crowd  is  so  vast,  that 
several  hours  elapse  before  they  can  clear  the  nar- 
row outskirts  of  Mecca.  Beyond  the  town  a  few 
miles  the  road  widens,  in  pass'ing  through  the  valley 
of  Muna,  where  the  law  enjoins  certain  prayers  and 
ceremonies  (paring  the  nails,  and  cutting  the  hair) 
to  be  observed.  This  march  is  necessarily  attended 
with  great  confusion.  "  Of  the  half-naked  hajjis," 
says  Burckhardt,  "  all  dressed  in  the  white  ihram, 
some  sat  reading  the  Koran  upon  their  camels ; 
some  ejaculating  loud  prayers  ;  while  others  cursed 
their  drivers,  and  quarrelled  with  those  near  them 
who  choked  up  the  passage." 

Leaving  Muna,  the  plain  of  Arafat  opens  through 
a  rocky  defile  in  the  mountains;  on  reaching wiiich 
the  caravans  and  numerous  detachments  of  pilgrims 
disperse  in  quest  of  their  respective  places  of  en- 
campment. It  was  about  three  hours  after  sunset 
when  Burckhardt  arrived ;  but  stragglers  continued 
to  pour  in  till  midnight.  Numberless  fires  were 
now  seen  lighted  up  over  an  extent  of  ground  three 
or  four  miles  in  length  ;  while  high  and  brilliant 
clusters  of  lamps  marked  the  different  places  where 
Mohammed  Ali,  Solyman  Pasha,  and  other  emirs  of 
the  haj,  had  pitched  their  tents.  Pilgrims  were  seen 
wandering  in  every  direction  from  camp  to  camp, 
ill  search  of  their  companions  whom  they  had  lost 
on  the  road;  and  it  was  several  hours  before  the 
noise  and  clamour  had  subsided.  Few  persons 
slept ;  the  devotees  sat  up  praying  and  uttering  their 
loud  chants ;  the  merry  Meccawees  formed  them- 
selves into  parties,  singing  the  jovial  songs  called 
jok,  accompanied  by  clapping  of  hands  ;  while  the 
cofi'ee-tents  were  crowded  the  whole  night  with 
customers. 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      217 

The  dawri  was  announced  by  a  discharge  of  mi?s^ 
ketry,  which  summoned  the  faithful  to  make  ready 
for  their  morning-  prayers.  After  sunrise  Burck- 
hardt  ascended  the  summit  of  the  mount,  which 
presented  a  very  extensive  and  singular  prospect. 
Long-  streets  of  tents,  fitted  up  as  bazars,  furnished 
the  busy  crowds  with  all  kinds  of  provisions.  The 
Syrian  and  Egyptian  cavalry  were  exercised  by  their 
chiefs  ;  while  thousands  of  camels  were  feeding-  on 
the  dry  shrubs  all  around  the  camps.  About  3000 
tents  were  dispersed  over  the  plain;  though  the 
greater  number  of  the  assembled  multitudes  had  no 
such  accommodation.  The  caravans  were  placed 
without  order ;  and  many  of  them  in  the  form  of 
large  circles  or  doioars,  in  the  inside  of  Which  their 
camels  reposed. 

Of  these  encampments  the  most  rich  and  magnifl-= 
cent  were  those  of  Yahia,  the  sheriff  of  Mecca,  the 
pasha  of  Damascus,  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  more 
particularly  his  wife,  who  had  lately  arrived  from 
Cairo.  Her  equipage  included  a  dozen  tents  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  inhabited  by  her  women :  the  whole 
Vvas  surrounded  with  a  wall  of  linen  cloth  800  paces 
in  circuit,  the  sole  entrance  to  which  was  guarded 
by  eunuchs  in  splendid  dresses.  Around  this  enclo- 
sure were  pitched  the  tents  of  the  men  who  formed 
her  numerous  suite.  The  beautiful  embroidery  on 
the  exterior  of  this  linen  palace,  with  the  various 
colours  displayed  in  every  part  of  it,  must  have  re- 
minded the  spectator  of  the  gorgeous  descriptions 
in  the  Tales  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights.  Some 
of  the  Mecca  merchants,  especially  the  family  of 
Jelani,  had  very  elegant  tents ;  this  being  almost 
the  only  occasion  when  the  Arabian  gfafidees  ever 
venture  to  display  their  wealth  in  the  presence  of  a 
pasha. 

Burckhardt  estimated  the  whole  persons  assem- 
bled on  the  plain  at  about  70,000 ;  and  the  numb{»r 
of  camels  from  20,000  to  25,000      This  seems  a 

Vol.  II.— T 


218  THE    MOHAMMEDAN    PILGRIMAGE. 

favourite  number  with  the  Mohammedans  ;  but  it  is 
deserving  of  remark,  that  he  is  the  third  traveller* 
who  has  made  the  same  calculation.  Pitts  and  All 
Bey  mention  this  as  being  the  smallest  number  that 
must  necessarily  attend  at  any  pilgrimage  on  Mount 
Arafat ;  and,  in  every  case  where  there  are  fewer, 
angels  are  sent  down  from  heaven  to  make  up  the 
deficiency.  Burckhardt's  70^000  appears  a  tolerable 
assemblage,  even  without  the  addition  of  celestial 
recruits  ;  yet  he  says  that  two  only  of  the  five  or 
six  regular  caravans  had  made  their  appearance  that 
year.  When  the  Spanish  Mussulman  performed 
this  ceremony,  he  reckoned  the  number  of  hajjis  at 
80,000  men,  2000  women,  and  1000  children ;  Avho" 
must  have  presented  a  curious  spectacle,  with  their 
60,000  or  70,000  camels,  asses,  and  horses,  marching 
through  the  narrow  valley  in  a  cloud  of  dust,  carry- 
ing a  forest  of  lances,  guns,  swivels,  and  other  arms,- 
and  forcing  their  passage  along  as  they  best  could. 

The  law  ordains  that  the  true  position  of  the  haj- 
should  be  on  Arafat ;  but  it  wisely  provides  against 
any  possibility  arising  from  its  scanty  dimensions,- 
by  declaring  that  the  mountain  includes  the  plain 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  A  similar  provi- 
sion is  made  with  regard  to  the  great  mosque,  which 
can  accommodate  at  prayers  about  35,000  persons. 
There  is,  however,  an  opinion  prevalent  at  Mecca, 
founded  on  a  holy  tradition,  that  it  is  capable  of  con- 
taining any  number  of  the  faithful — even  the  whole 
Mohammedan  community,  who  might  all  enter  at 
once,  and  find  ample  room.  The  guardian  angels 
are  gifted  with  the  power  of  invisibly  extending  the 
limits  of  the  building,  or  diminishing  the  size  of  the 
worshipper  ;  but  in  modern  times  there  is  no  occa- 
sion for  this  miracle,  as  the  temple  is  never  half 
filled,  and  seldom  visited,  even  during  the  haj,  by 
more  than  10,000  individuals  at  once. 

About  three  o'clock  the  chief  ceremony  of  the  day 
takes  place,  that  of  the  khoteh  or  sermon,  W'hich  is 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      219 

usually  preached  by  the  Cadi  of  Mecca.  The  whole 
multitude  now  unpitch  their  tents,  press  forward  to- 
wards the  mountain,  and  cover  its  sides  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  orator  takes  his  stand  on  the  stone-plat- 
form near  the  top,  whence  he  addresses  the  crowed. 
The  discourse  lasts  till  sunset,  and  no  pilgrim, 
although  he  may  have  visited  all  the  holy  places 
of  Mecca,  is  entitled  to  the  name  of  hajji  unless  he 
has  been  present  on  this  occasion. 

The  cadi,  whom  Burckhardt  describes  as  mounted 
on  a  richly-caparisoned  camel,  read  his  sermon  from 
a  book  in  Arabic,  which  he  held  in  his  hand  ;  at  inter- 
vals of  every  four  or  five  minutes  he  paused,  and 
stretched  forth  his  arms  to  implore  blessings  on  his 
hearers  ;  while  the  congregation  around  and  before 
him  waved  the  skirts  of  their  ihrams  over  their 
heads,  and  rent  the  air  with  shouts  of  "  Lebeik,  Al- 
lahuma,  lebeik !"  (Here  we  are  at  thy  commands, 
O  God  !)  During  the  wavings  of  the  white  garments 
by  the  dense  crowd,  the  side  of  the  mountain  had 
the  appearance  of  a  cataract  of  water,  and  the  green 
umbrellas  of  the  myriads  of  hajjis  sitting  on  their 
camels  below  bore  some  resemblance  to  a  verdant 
lawn.  The  sermon  lasted  nearly  three  hours,  dur- 
ing which  the  cadi  was  constantly  wiping  his  eyes  ; 
for  the  law  enjoins  the  preacher  to  be  moved  with 
feelings  of  compunction,  and  to  consider  tears  as 
evidence  that  he  is  divinely  illuminated,  and  that  his 
prayers  are  acceptable. 

The  effect  of  this  scene  upon  the  audience  was 
extremely  various.  Some  of  the  pilgrims  were  cry- 
ing loudly,  weeping,  and  beating  their  breasts  for 
their  sins ;  others  stood  in  silent  reflection,  with 
tears  of  adoration  in  their  eyes,  But  these  peni- 
tents were  mostly  foreigners.  The  natives  of  Ilejaz, 
and  the  Turkish  soldiers,  spent  the  time  in  convers- 
ing and  joking,  and  imitating  the  waving  of  the 
ihrams  by  violent  gestures  as  if  in  mockery.  Par- 
ities of  Arabs  v/ere  quietly  smoking  their  nargiles  3 


220      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

while  the  frequenters  of  the  cafes,  some  of  which 
were  kept  by  pubhc  women,  by  their  loud  laug-hter 
and  riotous  conduct,  gave  great  annoyance  to  the 
devotees  in  their  neighbourhood. 

To  every  stranger,  whether  Mohammedan,  Jew, 
or  Christian,  such  an  assemblage  must  furnish  a 
curious  and  impressive  spectacle.  "  It  was  a  sight," 
says  Pitts,  "  enough  to  pierce  one's  heart,  to  behold 
so  many  in  their  garments  of  humility  and  mortifi- 
cation, with  their  naked  heads,  and  cheeks  watered 
with  tears ;  and  to  hear  their  grievous  sighs  and 
sobs,  begging  earnestly  for  the  remission  of  their 
sins."  Many  of  the  poor  pilgrims  are  in  an  ecstasy, 
and  believe  themselves  in  actual  possession  of  para- 
dise. "  It  is  here,"  observes  Ali  Bey,  "  that  the 
grand  spectacle  of  the  Mussulman  pilgrimage  must 
be  seen.  An  innumerable  crowd  of  men  from  all 
nations,  and  of  all  colours,  coming  from  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  earth,  through  a  thousand  dangers,  and 
encountering  fatigues  of  every  description,  to  adore 
together  the  same  Deity  !  The  native  of  Circassia 
presents  his  hand  in  a  friendly  manner  to  the  Ethio- 
pian, or  the  negro  of  Guinea ;  the  Indian  and  the 
Persian  embrace  the  inhabitants  of  Barbary  and 
Morocco  ;  all  looking  upon  each  other  as  brothers, 
or  individuals  of  the  same  family  united  by  the  bonds 
of  religion,  and  the  greater  part  speaking  or  under- 
standing more  or  less  the  same  language.  What  a 
curb  to  sin,"  adds  this  zealous  Mussulman,  "  what 
an  encouragement  to  virtue  !  but  what  a  misfortune, 
that  with  all  these  advantages  we  should  not  be 
better  than  the  CaMnists  !" 

By  the  time  the  cadi  had  finished  his  discourse,  the 
greater  part  of  the  audience  seemed  to  be  wearied. 
The  sijn  was  descending  behind  the  western  moun- 
tains as  he  shut  the  book  and  pronounced  the  last 
greeting  of  "  Lebeik."  Instantly  the  crowds  pre- 
pared to  quit  Arafat  on  their  return ;  those  behind 
hurrying  and  pressing  on  those  before ;  so  that  with 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      221 

Many  it  is  a  trial  of  strength  and  speed.  Formerly, 
bloody  affrays  took  place  almost  every  year  ;  each 
party  endeavouring  to  outrun  and  carry  its  mahmal 
in  advance  of  the  other.  Two  hundred  lives  have 
on  some  occasions  been  lost  in  supporting-  what  was 
thought  the  honour  of  their  respective  caravans. 

The  cause  of  this  precipitation  is,  that  the  ritual 
orders  the  mogreb  or  prayer  of  the  setting  sun,  to  be 
said  at  Mezdelifa,  a  mosque  or  oratory  two  hours 
distant.  The  departure  and  march  is  a  scene  of 
splendid  confusion ;  many  pilgrims  had  lost  their 
companions,  others  their  camels,  who  were  heard 
calling  loudly  for  their  drivers,  or  searching  for  them 
over  the  plain.  As  it  was  dark,  innumerable  torches 
were  lighted,  emitting  sparks  of  fire ;  there  w^ere 
continual  volleys  of  artillery  ;  sky-rockets  were  let 
off ;  and  bands  of  martial  music  played  till  they 
arrived  at  the  mosque.  Here  another  sermon  is 
preached  by  torchlight,  commencing  with  the  first 
dawn,  and  continuing  till  the  sun  rises  above  the 
horizon,  when  the  pilgrims  move  onward  to  Wady 
Muna,  a  distance  of  three  miles. 

This  narrow  valley,  enclosed  on  both  sides  by 
steep  barren  cliffs  of  granite,  contains  a  single  street 
of  houses,  built  of  stone,  some  of  which  are  inhab- 
ited, but  the  greater  part  in  ruins.  It  abounds  w4th 
sacred  relics.  Here  is  the  mosque  of  Meshed  el  Kheif, 
in  which  the  Arabs  assert  that  Adam  w^as  buried ; 
here  Abraham  intended  to  sacrifice  his  son,  and  a 
granite  block  is  shown,  alleged  to  have  been  cleft  in 
two  by  the  stroke  of  his  knife  ;  here  Mohanmied  was 
favoured  with  many  of  his  revelations  ;  and  here  the 
devil  had  the  malice  to  whisper  Tshmael  in  the  ear 
that  he  was  about  to  be  slain  ; — other  traditions  say, 
he  attempted  to  obstruct  his  father  in  his  passage  at 
three  different  places,  which  are  marked  by  as  many 
stone  pillars.  The  first  duty  of  the  pilgrim  is  to 
provide  himself  with  twenty-one  small  pebbles  of 
the  size  of  a  horse-bean :  these  he  must  throw  at  the 

T2 


222      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

proper  times  and  places,  seven  at  each  pillar,  ex- 
claiming, "  Bismillah  !  God  is  great !  this  Ave  do  to 
secure  ourselves  from  the  devil  and  his  troops!" 
This  ceremony,  as  may  easily  be  imagined,  is  at- 
tended occasionally  by  accidents.  Ali  Bey  tells  us, 
he  came  off  with  two  wounds  in  his  left  leg.  It 
appears  also  to  be  the  subject  of  jocularity  ;  for  a 
facetious  hajji  observed  to  Pitts,  "You  may  save  your 
labour  at  present,  if  you  please,  for  I  have  hit  out  the 
devil's  eyes  already." 

After  the  "  stoning,"  which  is  repeated  three  days, 
and  without  which  the  pilgrimage  is  imperfect,  comes 
the  grand  sacrifice  of  animals, — a  rite  that  all  Mus- 
sulmans are  bound  at  this  time  (the  10th  day  of  the 
month)  to  perform.  In  the  space  of  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  thousands  of  sheep  and  goats  are  slaughtered 
in  the  valley:  some  of  which  are  brought  by  the 
hajjis,  others  purchased  from  the  Bedouins,  who 
demand  high  prices  for  them.  The  law  requires 
that  the  throats  of  the  animals  be  cut  in  the  name 
of  the  most  merciful  God,  with  their  faces  towards 
the  Kaaba.  The  number  of  victims  has  sometimes 
been  very  great.  The  Caliph  Moktader  sacrificed 
50,000  sheep,  besides  40,000  camels  and  cows.  Bar- 
thema  speaks  of  30,000  oxen  being  slain,  and  their 
carcasses  given  to  the  poor,  who  seemed  "  more 
anxious  to  have  their  bellies  filled  than  their  sins 
remitted."  We  are  apt  to  wonder  how  so  many 
myriads  of  animals  can  subsist  in  so  desolate  a  re- 
gion, or  how  they  can  be  contained  in  so  contracted 
a  space  as  Wady  Muna ;  but  the  Moslems  explain 
it,  by  pretending  that  the  valley  can  expand  its 
dimensions  ;  and  that  on  the  Day  of  Sacrifice,  neither 
vultures  nor  flies  molest  the  votaries  by  carrying 
off  the  lambs  or  tainting  the  raw  flesh,  vast  quantities 
of  which  remain  unconsumed. 

On  the  completion  of  the  sacrifice,  the  pilgrims 
throw  off  the  ihram,  and  resume  their  ordinary  at- 
tire ;  many  of  them  putting  on  their  best  dresses  to 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      225 

celebrate  the  day  of  the  feast  or  beiram.  The  long 
street  of  Muna  is  converted  into  a  fair ;  sheds,  booths, 
and  tents  being  fitted  up  as  shops  for  provisions  and 
merchandise  of  all  kinds.  The  Syrian  bargains  for 
the  goods  of  India  ;  the  stranger  from  Borneo  and 
Timbuctoo  exhibits  his  wares  to  the  natives  of  Geor- 
gia and  Samarcand  ;  while  the  poor  hajjis  cry  their 
small  stock,  which  they  carry  on  their  heads.  The 
mixture  of  nations  and  tongues,  costumes  and  com- 
modities, is  more  striking  here  than  at  Mecca.  At 
night  the  valley  blazes  with  illuminations,  fireworks, 
discharges  of  artillery,  and  bonfires  on  the  hills. 
The  second  day  of  the  feast  ends  the  pilgrimage  to 
Arafat ;  when  the  devotees  return,  to  Mecca,  testify- 
ing their  delight  by  songs,  loud  talking,  and  laugh- 
ter. Many  of  the  indigent  pilgrims  remain  behind 
to  feast  on  the  offals  and  putrefying  carcasses  of  the 
victims  that  strew  the  valley.  The  starved  Indians 
cut  the  meat  into  slices  for  their  travelling-provi- 
sions, which  they  dry  in  the  sun,  or  in  the  mosque, 
where  they  are  spread  on  the  pavement,  or  suspended 
on  cords  between  the  columns. 

On  arriving  at  Mecca,  a  repetition  of  the  previous 
ceremonies  takes  place.  The  pilgrims  must  visit  the 
Kaaba,  which,  in  the  mean  time,  has  been  covered 
with  the  new  black  clothing.  The  visit  to  the  inte- 
rior of  this  building  is  performed  by  immense  crowds, 
though  it  forms  no  part  of  the  religious  duty  of  the 
hajjis.  On  opening  the  door,  which  takes  place  an 
hour  after  sunrise,  a  rush  is  made  up  the  steps,  and 
sometimes  over  the  heads  of  the  people,  in  spite  of 
the  eunuchs,  who  endeavour  to  keep  order  with  their 
sticks,  which  fall  particularly  heavy  on  such  as  omit 
to  drop  a  fee  into  their  hands ;  for  all  the  oflScers, 
from  the  sheriff  who  holds  the  silver  key  to  be  kissed 
at  the  entrance,  to  the  lowest  menial,  expect  to  be 
paid.  The  hall  is  immediately  filled,  when  every 
visiter  must  pray  eight  rikats,  and  perform  sixteen 
prostrations.    Nothing  but  sighing  and  moaning  is 


224  THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

heard, — the  effect  of  pressure,  perhaps  of  sincere 
repentance  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  imagine  how  these  de- 
votions are  performed,  for  while  one  is  bowing-  down 
another  walks  over  his  back  ;  some  are  unmercifully 
crushed,  and  many  are  carried  out  with  diihculty 
quite  senseless  from  heat  and  suffocation. 

On  the  first  and  second  days  the  men  and  women 
enter  alternately ;  on  the  third,  the  sheriff,  the  sheiks, 
and  illustrious  hajjis,  perform  the  holy  ceremony  of 
sweeping  and  washing  the  floor.  AH  the  water- 
carriers  in  Mecca  advance  with  pitchers  and  besoms, 
which  are  passed  from  hand  to  hand  until  they  reach 
the  guards  at  the  entrance.  The  negroes  then  throw 
the  water  on  the  pavement,  while  the  devotees 
sweep  and  scrub  with  both  hands,  until  the  floor 
appears  polished  like  glass.  The  water  flows  out 
by  a  hole  under  the  door ;  and  foul  as  it  is,  it  is 
eagerly  drunk  by  the  Faithful ;  while  those  who  are 
at  a  distance  have  quantities  of  it  thrown  over  them 
by  the  eunuchs.  It  must  require  no  common  pitch 
of  fanaticism  to  reconcile  the  stomach  of  the  wor- 
shipper to  this  practice ;  but  the  Moslem  excuse  it 
by  alleging,  that  although  the  liquid  is  very  dirty,  it 
has  the  benediction  of  God,  and  is  besides  much  per- 
fumed with  the  essence  of  roses.  The  brooms  of 
palm-leaves,  as  well  as  the  shreds  of  the  cloth  that 
surrounds  the  door  and  bottom  of  the  hall,  are  di- 
vided among  the  pilgrims,  and  treasured  up  as  relics. 
Pieces  both  of  the  exterior  and  interior  coverings 
are  constantly  on  sale  at  a  shop  before  the  Bab  es 
Salaam  ;  the  latter  are  most  esteemed,  and  waist- 
coats are  made  of  it,  which  the  Believers  reckon  the 
safest  armour  they  can  wear. 

During  the  Ramadan,  and  especially  on  the  last 
day,  the  mosque  is  particularly  brilliant.  At  the 
celebration  of  the  evening  orisons,  the  whole  square 
and  colonnades  are  illuminated  by  thousands  of 
lamps ;  and  in  addition  to  these,  most  of  the  hajjis 
iiave  each  his  own  lantern  standing  before  him.   The 


THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE.      225 

agreeable  coolness  of  the  place  induces  them  to 
walk  about  or  sit  conversing  till  after  midnight.  As 
the  legal  period  of  abstinence  now  terminates,  every 
one  brings  in  his  handkerchief  a  few  dates  or  grapes, 
with  bread  and  cheese,  waiting  in  suspense  until  the 
imam  from  the  top  of  the  Zemzen  proclaims,  "  Al- 
lah Akbar,"  when  they  hasten  to  break  their  fast 
(the  lesser  heiram)  and  drink  a  jar  of  the  holy 
water.  The  whole  scene  presents  a  curious  mix- 
ture of  the  gay  and  the  grave.  The  mind  is  struck 
with  some  degree  of  awe  to  witness  so  many  thou- 
sands performing  the  towaf,  or  prostrating  them- 
selves on  their  carpets  ;  while  the  mingled  voices 
of  the  metowafs,  intent  on  making  themselves  heard 
by  those  to  whom  they  recite  their  prayers, — the 
loud  conversation  of  idle  spectators, — and  the  run- 
ning and  laughing  of  boys,  some  of  whom  are  divert- 
ing themselves  with  swinging  machines,  or  the  feats 
of  jugglers  in  the  streets,  make  the  Temple  more 
like  a  place  of  public  amusement  than  a  sanctuary 
of  religion. 

Before  the  caravans  take  their  final  departure,  the 
pilgrims,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  are  occu- 
pied with  commercial  transactions,  either  buying 
provisions  for  their  journey  or  engrossed  in  the  pur- 
suits of  gain.  The  termination  of  the  haj  changes 
the  entire  aspect  both  of  the  town  and  the  Temple. 
Of  the  brilliant  shops  lately  filled  with  the  produc- 
tions and  manufactures  of  every  climate  in  the  world, 
Burckhardt  remarks,  that  not  more  than  a  fourth 
part  remained.  The  streets  were  deserted,  covered 
with  rubbish  and  filth,  which  nobody  seemed  dis- 
posed to  remove,  and  swarming  with  beggars,  who 
raised  their  plaintive  voices  towards  the  windows 
of  the  houses  they  supposed  to  be  still  inhabited.* 

*  The  streets  and  mosques  of  Mecca  resound  with  the  cries 
of  beggars  :—"0  Brethren!  O  Faithful !  hear  me!  I  ask  twenty 
dollars  from  God  to  pay  for  my  passage  home;  twenty  dollars  only ! 
God  is  all  boimtiful,  and  may  send  me  a  hundred  dollars  :  but 


226      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

The  suburbs  were  crowded  with  the  carcasses  of 
dead  camels,  of  which  above  10,000  are  supposed  to 
perish  annually ;  the  smell  rendering  the  air  offensive, 
and  spreading  pestilence  among  the  inhabitants. 

The  mosque  itself  is  not  free  from  these  pollu- 
tions. Poor  hajjis,  worn  out  with  disease  and  hun- 
ger, are  seen  dragging  their  emaciated  bodies  along 
the  colonnades  ;  and  when  no  longer  able  to  stretch 
forth  their  hand  to  ask  the  passengers  for  charity, 
they  place  a  bowl  to  receive  alms  near  the  mat  on 
which  they  lie.  All  the  sick,  when  they  feel  their 
last  moments  approach,  are  carried  to  the  Temple, 
that  they  may  either  be  cured  by  a  sight  of  the 
Kaaba,  or  have  the  satisfaction  of  expiring  within 
the  sacred  enclosure.  The  friendless  stranger  thinks 
paradise  secure  if  he  can  obtain  a  sprinkling  of  the 
Zemzen  water,  and  breathe  his  latest  sigh  "  in  the 
arms  of  the  Prophet  and  the  guardian  angels."  For 
a  month  subsequent  to  the  conclusion  of  the  haj, 
dead  bodies  are  carried  forth  almost  every  morning, 
and  buried  by  persons  in  the  service  of  the  mosque. 

Before  bidding  adieu  to  the  capital  of  Islam,  there 
are  several  holy  spots  in  the  town  and  suburbs 
which  the  pilgrims  visit.  Among  these  are  the 
?nouleds,  or  birthplaces  of  Mohammed,  Fatima,  Ali, 
Abu  Beker,  and  Abu  Taleb  who  is  the  great  patron 
of  the  city,  and  whose  name  is  held  most  sacred. 

it  is  twenty  dollars  only  that  I  ask !  Remember  that  charity  is  the 
sure  road  to  paradise  !"  Burckhardt  mentions  a  Yemen  beggar 
at  Jidda  who  mounted  the  minaret  daily  after  noon  prayer,  and 
e.-:ciaimed,  loud  enough  to  be  heard  through  the  whole  bazaar, 
•'  I  ask.  from  God  fifty  dollars,  a  suit  of  clothes,  and  a  copy  of  the 
Koran.  O  Faithful,  hear  me !  I  ask  of  you  fifty  dollars,"  &c. 
This  he  repeated  for  several  weeks,  when  a  Turkish  pilgrim 
offered  him  thirty  dollars  to  discontmue  his  cries  : — "  No,"  said 
the  beggar,  "  I  will  not  take  them,  because  I  am  convinced  God 
will  send  me  the  whole."  At  length  the  same  haiii  gave  him 
his  full  demand  without  being  thanked  for  it — "  Pull  my  beard," 
the  needy  suppliant  will  say  to  the  scrupulous  pilgrim,  "if  Go4 
4oe»  not  send  ypu  ten  times  more  than  Vidiat  I  ask  !" 


MEDINA.  227 

The  tombs  of  Kadijah  and  Amina  the  Prophet's  mo- 
ther are  also  objects  of  veneration.  The  guardian- 
ship of  these  places  is  shared  by  several  families, 
principally  sheriffs,  who  attend  by  turns  with  a  train 
of  servants,  and  generally  expect  a  contribution 
from  the  purse  of  the  visiters.  Most  of  the  hills  in 
the  vicinity  are  held  as  consecrated  ground,  from 
being  the  scene  of  the  miracles  or  revelations  of  the 
Apostle.  On  the  top  of  Gebel  Kobeis,  the  hajjis  are 
shown  the  place  were  the  moon  was  split ;  at  Gebel 
Tor,  the  cavern  where  the  fugitive  Prophet  and  his 
companions  took  shelter  in  their  flight  to  Medina ; 
and  at  Hira,  now  called  Gebel  Nour,  or  the  i\Iountain 
of  Light,  the  small  grotto  is  pointed  out  in  the  red 
granite;  rock,  where  several  passages  of  the  Koran 
were  revealed  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  But  the  tales 
applied  to  these  places  are  not  supported  by  any  au- 
thentic traditions  ;  and  a  journey  to  them  is  enjoined, 
less  out  of  *iy  feeling  of  reverence  than  from  a 
desire  to  extort  money. 

A  more  attractive  object  of  devotion  is  the  tomb 
of  Mohammed  at  Medina ;  and  such  of  the  hajjis  as 
do  not  immediately  disperse  to  their  homes,  usually 
join  the  Syrian  caravan,  or  form  themselves  into 
small  detachments,  who  are  supplied  with  camels 
by  the  Bedouins.  Their  mode  of  travelling  is  not 
the  most  convenient ;  some  being  mounted  on  the 
back  of  the  loaded  animal,  and  others  sitting,  one  on 
each  side,  in  panniers  or  machines  (she/cdafs),  which 
must  be  balanced  with  great  care.  According  to 
the  usual  practice  in  Hejaz,  the  camels  walk  in  a 
single  row,  those  behind  being  tied  to  the  tails  of 
those  that  precede  them ;  so  that  a  mistake  com- 
mitted by  the  foremost  leads  the  whole  astray.  A 
journey  of  ten  or  eleven  days  (about  270  miles), 
through  sandy  plains,  irregular  ridges  of  mountains, 
and  cultivated  valleys,  brings  the  pilgrims  to  the 
city  of  the  Prophet.  On  the  whole  of  this  route 
there  is  not  a  public  khan;  nor  is  any  provision 


228      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PIL6RIMAGE. 

made  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers,  except 
the  watering-places,  which  are  kept  in  tolerable 
repair.  Although  reckoned  sufficiently  safe  for 
large  bodies,  yet  daring  robberies  are  occasionally 
committed  by  the  Arabs. 

The  sacred  city  of  Medina  lies  on  the  edge  of  the 
Great  Arabian  Desert.  According  to  the  strict  pre- 
cept of  Mohammed,  a  circle  of  twelve  miles  round 
the  place  should  be  considered  as  holy  territory  ;• 
but  this  injunction  is  completely  set  aside.  The 
town  itself  is  well  built :  the  houses  are  generally 
two  stories  high,  entirely  of  stone ;  and  not  being 
whitewashed,  they  have  for  the  most  part  a  gloomy 
aspect.  The  main  streets  are  paved ;  the  rest  are 
narrow,  often  only  two  or  three  paces  across.  The 
wall,  which  completely  surrounds  the  city,  forms  a 
kind  of  oval  of  about  2S00  paces  in  circumference^ 
ending  in  a  point  or  small  rocky  elevation,  on  which 
stands  the  castle.  This  latter  is  enclos#id  by  a  thick 
stone  rampart,  between  thirty-five  and  forty  feet^ 
high,  flanked  l3y  about  thirty  towers,  and  defended' 
by  a  ditch.  It  contains  sufficient  space  for  600  of 
800  men,  has  many  arched  rooms  bomb  proof,  and 
is  supplied  with  excellent  water. 

The  suburbs  extend  on  the  west  and  south,  and 
cover  more  ground  than  the  town  itself,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  an  open  space  occupied  with 
huts,  coffee-shops,  markets,  and  gardens.  There  are 
very  few  fine  edifices  or  public  buildings,  and  those 
here,  as  well  as  at  Mecca,  are  the  works  of  the  sul- 
tans of  Egypt  and  Constantinople.  There  is  ari 
abundant  supply  of  water  by  means  of  subterra- 
neous canals  and  wells,  which  are  scattered  over  the 
town.  The  number  of  inhabitants  Burckhardt  sup- 
posed might  be  between  16,000  and  20,000  ;  the 
greater  part  of  whom  are  of  foreign  origin,  and  pre- 
sent as  motley  a  race  as  those  of  Mecca.  No  year 
E asses  without  an  influx  of  new  settlers,  attracted 
y  the  hope  of  making  gain  in  their  religious  traffic 


MEDINA.  229 

with  the  pilgrims.  Few  descendants  of  the  original 
Arabs  who  lived  here  in  the  time  of  Mohammed  now 
remain.  Of  the  Ansars  not  more  than  ten  families 
can  establish  their  pedigree  ;  and  these  are  of  the 
humbler  class,  living  as  peasants  in  the  suburbs  and 
gardens.  The  number  of  sheriffs  descended  from 
Hussein  and  Hossein  were  formerly  considerable  : 
the  latter  are  reduced  to  about  a  dozen  families,  who 
live  apart  by  themselves,  and  still  rank  among  the 
grandees  of  the  town.  A  few  individuals  claiming 
the  honour  of  descent  from  the  Abbassides  still 
reside  at  Medina  in  a  state  of  poverty,  and  are 
known  by  the  appellation  of  Caliphi,  implying  the 
illustrious  source  whence  they  are  sprung. 

The  mixed  race,  of  which  the  greater  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  are  composed,  all  become  Arabs  as  to 
features  and  character  in  course  of  the  second  or 
third  generation.  In  their  disposition  they  are  less 
lively  and  cheerful  than  the  Meccawees  ;  but,  though 
they  appear  outwardly  more  religious,  and  display 
more  gravity  and  circumspection  in  their  manners, 
their  moral  character  is  not  better,  nor  are  their 
vices  fewer  than  those  of  their  neighbours.  Their 
style  of  living  is  poor  ;  though  their  houses  are  well 
furnished,  and  their  expense  in  dress  and  entertain- 
ments is  very  considerable.  As  many  of  them  are 
descended  from  northern  Turks,  they  retain  much 
of  the  costume  as  well  as  the  habits  of  that  nation. 
Everybody,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  carries 
in  his  hand  a  bludgeon  or  long  heavy  stick.  The 
rich  have  theirs  headed  with  silver  ;  others  fix  iron 
spikes  to  them,  and  thus  make  a  formidable  weapon, 
which  the  Arabs  handle  with  great  dexterity  in  their 
frequent  bloody  affrays. 

No  great  or  wealthy  merchants  are  settled  here  ; 
the  trade  is  merely  retail,  and  those  who  possess 
capital  generally  invest  it  in  goods ;  their  not  being 
any  public  institution  like  banks,  or  commercial 
companies,  or  national  funds,  from  which  the  capi- 

Vol.  II.— U 


230  THE    MOHAMTVIEDAN    PILGRIMAGE. 

talist  might  derive  interest  for  his  money.  As  the 
law  rigorously  prohibits  usury,  this  source  of  gain  is 
left  wholly  in  the  hands  of  Jews  and  Christians,  the 
outcasts  of  Europe.  The  produce  of  the  lands  around 
the  town  is  said  to  be  barely  sufficient  for  four 
month's  consumption,  which  is  estimated  at  the  rate 
of  twenty-five  or  thirty-five  camel-loads  per  day. 
The  rents  of  fields  and  gardens,  if  the  crop  be  good, 
is  very  considerable ;  the  proprietor  in  ordinary 
years  being  able  to  sell  at  such  a  rate  as  to  leave  a 
profit  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen,  and  sometimes  even 
forty  per  cent,  upon  his  capital,  after  giving  up,  as 
is  generally  done,  half  the  produce  to  the  actual  cul- 
tivators. The  middling  classes,  who  have  small 
funds,  require  exorbitant  returns, — none  of  them  are 
content  with  less  than  fifty  per  cent,  annually  ;  and 
in  general  they  contrive,  by  cheating  foreigners,  to 
double  their  fortune  in  the  course  of  a  single  pil- 
grimage. Most  of  the  merchants  have  trifling  capi- 
tals of  400Z.  or  500/.  :  there  are  only  two  or  three 
families  that  can  be  considered  wealthy,  and  these 
are  reported  to  be  worth  10,000/.  or  12,000/.  sterling, 
half  of  which  perhaps  is  vested  in  land,  and  the  rest' 
in  trade. 

The  principal  support  of  the  place  is  drawn  from 
the  mosque  and  the  hajjis.  The  former,  from  con- 
taining the  tomb  of  Mohammed,  is  reckoned  the 
precious  jewel  of  Medina ;  which  on  this  account  is 
esteemed  equal,  and  even  preferred  by  some  wri- 
ters and  sects  of  the  Arabs,  to  Mecca  itself.  This 
venerated  edifice  is  situated  towards  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  town.  It  is  built  much  on  the  same 
plan  with  the  Temple  at  Mecca,  forming  an  open 
square,  which  is  divided  by  a  partition  into  two  sep- 
arate compartments,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  covered  arcades ;  but  its  dimensions  are  much 
smaller,  being  165  paces  in  length  and  130  in  breadth. 
The  colonnades  are  less  regular,  being  composed  of 
ten  rows  of  piUars  behind  each  other  on  the  south 


MEDINA.  231 

side  ;  four  rows  on  the  west ;  and  only  three  on  the 
north  and  part  of  the  east  side.  The  cohimns  are 
of  stone,  of  different  sizes,  and  all  plastered  white. 
The  small  domes  on  the  roof  are  whitewashed,  as 
are  the  interior  walls,  except  that  on  the  south  side, 
which  is  cased  with  slabs  of  marble  nearly  up  to  the 
top,  and  adorned  with  several  rows  of  inscriptions, 
one  above  another,  in  large  gilt  letters,  which  have 
a  very  brilliant  effect.  Spacious  windows  with  glass 
panes,  some  of  which  are  finely  painted,  admit  the 
light  through  this  wall :  the  floor  of  the  colonnade 
is  here  formed  of  marble,  one  of  the  best  specimens 
of  Mosaic  to  be  seen  in  the  East ;  the  other  parts, 
as  well  as  the  open  court,  are  laid  out  with  a  coarse 
pavement,  or  merely  covered  with  sand. 

The  history  of  this  mosque  resembles  that  of  the 
Beitullah.  It  received  many  donations  and  im- 
provements from  the  caliphs ;  and  was  repeatedly 
plundered,  destroyed,  and  repaired.  In  1250  A.  D., 
a  few  months  after  the  eruption  of  a  volcano  near 
the  town,  it  caught  fire,  and  was  burned  to  the 
ground, — an  accident  which  was  ascribed  to  the 
heterodox  Sheahs,  who  were  then  the  guardians  of 
the  tomb.  More  than  200  years  afterward  it  was 
again  reduced  to  ashes  by  a  conflagration  occasioned 
by  lightning.  All  the  walls,  the  roof,  and  120  col- 
umns, fell ;  the  books  were  consumed,  and  the  only 
part  that  escaped  was  the  interior  of  the  tomb.  Its 
restoration  was  undertaken  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt, 
to  whom  Hejaz  owed  a  number  of  public  works. 
The  whole  mosque  then  assumed  its  present  form, 
and  since  that  period  (A.  D.  1487)  only  a  few  imma- 
terial improvements  have  been  made  by  the  Turks. 

The  approach  to  the  temple  is  choked  up  on  all 
sides  by  private  buildings,  some  of  which  are  sepa- 
rated from  it  only  by  a  narrow  street,  while  others 
are  close  upon  the  walls.  There  are  five  minarets 
and  four  gates  ;  the  principal  one,  by  which  the  haj- 
jis  are  obliged  to  enter  on  their  first  visit,  is  ex- 


232      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

tremely  handsome, — its  sides  being-  inlaid  with  mar- 
ble and  glazed  tiles  of  various  colours,  which  give  it 
a  very  dazzling  appearance.  Immediately  before  it 
is  a  small  fountain,  where  it  is  usual  for  the  devotees 
to  perform  their  ablutions.  There  are  a  few  steps 
of  ascent  at  all  the  entrances, — the  area  of  the  court 
being  on  a  higher  level  than  the  streets.  In  the 
centre  of  the  northern  division  of  the  square  stands 
a  small  building  with  a  vaulted  roof,  where  the  lamps 
of  the  mosque  are  kept.  Near  it  is  an  enclosure  of 
low  wooden  railings,  which  contain  some  palm-trees 
held  sacredby  the  Moslem, because  they  are  believed 
to  have  been  planted  by  Fatima.  There  are  no  sa- 
cred pigeons  as  at  Mecca;  but  thequantity  of  woollen 
carpets  spread  on  different  parts,  where  the  most  dirty 
Arabs  and  the  best-dressed  strangers  kneel  side  by 
side,  have  rendered  this  "  inviolable  Haram"  the 
favourite  abode  of  millions  of  other  animals  less 
harmless  than  turtle-doves,  and  a  great  pest  to  all 
visiters,  who  transfer  them  from  their  persons  to 
their  private  lodgings,  which  in  consequence  swarm 
with  vermin. 

It  is  in  the  south-east  corner  of  this  division  that 
the  famous  sepulchre  of  Mohammed  is  placed,  so 
detached  from  the  walls  as  to  leave  a  space  of  about 
twenty-five  feet  on  the  one  side  and  fifteen  on  the 
other.  To  defend  its  hallowed  contents  from  the 
approach  of  the  impure,  or  the  superstitious  adora- 
tion of  the  visiter,  it  is  surrounded  by  an  enclosure 
called  El  Hejra,  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  square 
of  nearly  twenty  paces,  arched  overhead  and  sup- 
ported by  colunms.  This  space  is  encircled  by  an 
iron  railing  about  thirty  feet  high,  of  good  work- 
manship, painted  green,  which  fills  up  the  intervals 
between  the  pillars,  and  rises  to  about  two-thirds  of 
their  height,  leaving  the  upper  part  entirely  open. 
The  railing  is  in  imitation  of  filagree,  interwoven 
with  inscriptions  of  yellow  bronze,  supposed  by  the 
vulgar  to  be  of  gold,  and  of  so  close  a  texture  that 


MEDINA.  233 

no  view  can  be  gained  into  the  interior,  except 
through  several  very  small  windows,  which  are 
placed  on  each  of  the  four  sides,  about  five  feet 
above  the  ground.  The  two  principal  windows, 
before  which  visiters  stand  when  they  pray,  are  on 
the  south  side,  where  the  iron  fence  is  thinly  plated 
over  with  silver,  having  the  often-repeated  inscrip- 
won  of  "  La  Illha"  carried  across  it  in  silver  letters. 

Tour  gates  lead  into  this  cage-like  enclosure, 
three  of  which  are  kept  continually  shut, — one  only 
being  open  night  and  morning  to  admit  the  eunuchs, 
whose  office  it  is  to  clean  the  floor  and  light  the 
lamps.  What  appears  of  the  interior  is  merely  a 
curtain  carried  round  on  all  sides,  resembling  a  bed, 
which  is  of  the  same  height  as  the  railing,  and  fills 
nearly  the  whole  space,  leaving  only  an  open  walk 
between  of  a  few  paces  in  breadth.  This  veil  is 
a  rich  silk  brocade,  of  various  colours,  interwoven 
with  silver  flowers  and  arabesques  ;  with  a  band  of 
inscriptions  in  gold  characters  running  across  the 
middle,  like  that  on  the  covering  of  the  Kaaba. 
Within  its  holy  precincts  no  person  is  allowed  to 
enter  except  the  chief  eunuchs,  who  take  care  of  it, 
and  whose  business  it  is  to  put  on  during  the  night 
the  fresh  curtain,  which  is  sent  from  Constantinople 
whenever  the  old  one  is  decayed,  or  when  a  new 
sultan  ascends  the  throne.  The  venerable  remnants 
of  this  sacred  brocade  are  sent  back  to  the  Turkish 
capital,  and  serve  to  cover  the  tombs  of  the  sove- 
reigns and  princes  of  the  empire. 

It  is  within  this  double  frame  of  silk  and  rails  that 
the  ashes  of  the  Prophet  repose,  along  with  the 
remains  of  his  two  earliest  friends  and  immediate 
successors,  Abu  Beker  and  Omar.  Authors  differ 
as  to  the  respective  position  of  the  three  tombs ; 
but  they  are  said  to  be  of  plain  masonwork,  in  the 
form  of  a  chest,  and  covered  with  precious  stuffs.* 

*  The  vulgar  story  long  prevalent  in  Christendom,  which  sus- 
pended the  Prophet's  coffin  in  the  air  at  Mecca  by  the  action  of 

U2 


234     THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

The  historian  of  Medina,  Samhoudi,  says,  that  the 
coffin  which  contains  the  dust  of  Mohammed  is 
cased  with  silver  and  overlaid  with  a  marble  slab, 
inscribed,  Bismillai  Allahumd  Salli  alei  (In  the  name 
of  God  bestow  thy  mercy  upon  him).  Glass  lamps 
are  suspended  all  round  the  curtain,  which  are  kept 
burning  every  night :  the  floor  of  this  part  of  the 
mosque  is  paved  with  various-coloured  marbles  in 
Mosaic.  The  whole  of  this  enclosure  is  surmounted 
by  a  fine  lofty  cupola,  rising  far  above  the  domes  on 
the  roof  of  the  colonnades,  and  visible  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  town ;  it  is  covered  with  lead,  and 
has  on  the  top  a  globe  of  considerable  size  and  a 
crescent,  both  glittering  with  gold. 

In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  are  the  tombs  of 
Fatima  and  other  Mohammedan  saints.  Tradition 
even  alleges,  that,  when  the  last  trumpet  shall  sound, 
the  Saviour  of  the  Christians,  after  having  announced 
the  great  day  of  judgment,  will  die,  and  be  buried  by 
the  side  of  tlie  Arabian  apostle ;  and  that,  when  the 
dead  are  raised  from  their  graves,  they  shall  both 
ascend  to  heaven  together.  These  and  other  fables 
have  been  invented  merely  to  confer  an  ideal  im- 
portance on  the  city  and  tomb  of  the  Prophet.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  exaggerated  accounts  of  its 
wonders  and  riches,  which  have  been  long  propa- 
gated among  strangers.     It  was  in  this  sanctuary, 

two  powerful  magnets,  was  a  ridiculous  invention  of  the  Greeks 
and  Latins,  and  is  unknown  in  Arabia.  The  Moslem  of  the 
present  day  smile  at  the  credulity  of  foreigners  who  talk  of  these 
marvels.  The  fable  may  easily  be  explained  without  the  aid  of 
philosophy,  and  seems  to  have  originated,  as  Niebuhr  supposes, 
from  the  rude  drawing  sold  to  strangers,  in  which  ^^ 

the  figures  of  three  golden  coffins  were  represented,  ^^ 

not  as  lying  horizontally,  but  placed  one  above  the        BB 
other,  to  mark  their  position  within  the  railing  in  the    _|_ 
annexed  order.     Chalcondyles  (De  Ken.  Turc,  lib.     ^^ 
iii.  p.  66) ;  Bayle  (Diet.  Art.  Mahomet) ;  Reland  (De  ReUg.  Mah. 
lib.  ii.  c.  19) ;  Gagnier  (Vie,  lib.  vi.  c.  20) ;  and  Pococke  (Sped 
men,  p.  180),  will  satisfy  the  curious  student  of  the  iron  tomb. 


IHEDINA.  235 

indeed,  that  the  treasures  of  Hejaz  were  formerly 
kept,  either  suspended  on  silken  ropes  drawn  across 
the  interior  of  the  building,  or  placed  in  large  chests 
on  the  ground.  The  whole  must  have  formed  a  col- 
lection of  considerable  value,  though  far  from  being 
to  that  immense  extent  which  many  have  pretended. 
Next  to  the  hejra,  the  most  holy  place  in  the  mosque 
is  the  rodha,  where  the  pulpit  is  placed,  and  the  two 
tnehrabs.  On  the  sides  of  the  former  and  of  both 
the  mehrabs  huge  wax-candles  are  fixed,  twelve  feet 
high  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  body,  which  are  lighted 
every  evening  with  the  aid  of  a  ladder  kept  for  the 
purpose. 

The  ceremonies  required  of  the  hajjis  are  here 
much  easier  and  shorter  than  at  Mecca.  On  enter- 
ing the  mosque  he  must  pass  his  right  foot  first  over 
the  threshold ;  while  reciting  certain  supplications  he 
steps  forward  into  the  rodha,  where  he  is  enjoined 
to  repeat  two  short  chapters  of  the  Koran,  and  a  brief 
prayer,  with  four  prostrations.  His  next  process  is 
to  advance  slowly  towards  the  railing  of  the  hejra, 
before  the  window  of  which,  on  the  south  side,  he 
takes  his  stand.  With  arms  half  raised  he  addresses 
his  invocations  to  the  Prophet,  repeating  the  words 
of  the  Moslem  creed,  besides  about  twenty  of  the 
<iifferent  surnames  or  honourable  titles  of  Moham- 
med. Then  follows  a  prayer  soliciting  the  apostle's 
intercession  in  heaven,  in  which  he  includes  such  of 
his  friends  and  relations  as  he  pleases ;  and  if  he  is 
delegated  in  the  pilgrimage  for  another,  he  is  bound 
here  to  mention  the  name  of  his  principal.  This 
done,  the  visiter  must  remain  a  few  minutes  with 
his  head  pressed  close  against  the  window  in  silent 
adoration ;  after  which  he  goes  through  the  same 
entreaties  and  humble  attitudes  at  the  other  win- 
dows opposite  the  tombs  of  Abu  Beker  and  Omar. 
A  prayer  and  four  prostrations  is  also  addressed 
before  the  tomb  of  the  "bright  blooming  Fatima,'' 
«s  she  is  always  called ;  and  this,  with  a  salutation 


236      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

to  the  Deity  on  returning  to  the  rodha  before  leaving 
the  mosque,  completes  the  ceremony  of  the  ziara 
or  visit,  the  performance  of  which  occupies  at  most 
about  twenty  minutes. 

Certain  gifts  and  gratuities  are  exacted  of  every 
pilgrim  ;  the  eunuchs  and  porters  expect  their  fees  as 
a  matter  of  right ;  privileged  persons  sit  at  different 
stations  to  receive  his  donations  ;  and  beggars  beset 
him  at  the  gate  imploring  his  charity.  The  whole 
visit  cost  Burckhardt  fifteen  piasters ;  though  he 
states  that  he  might  have  accomplished  it  for  half 
the  expense.  An  additional  sum  is  paid  by  those 
who  enter  within  the  railing  of  the  hejra :  admission 
is  granted  free  to  pashas,  emirs,  and  persons  of  rank  ; 
but  others  must  purchase  this  favour  of  the  eunuchs 
at  the  price  of  twelve  or  fifteen  dollars.  Few,  how- 
ever, avail  themselves  of  this  indulgence,  because 
there  is  little  to  gratify  the  prying  eye  of  curiosity 
beyond  what  falls  under  their  external  observation. 
"  All  the  privileges  the  hajjis  have,"  says  Pitts,  "  is 
only  to  thrust  in  their  heads  at  the  windows  between 
the  brass  grates,  and  to  petition  the  dead  juggler, 
which  they  do  with  a  wonderful  deal  of  reverence, 
affection,  and  zeal."  Though  the  visit  to  the  mosque 
and  tomb  are  not  obligatory  on  the  faithful,  it  is 
thought  to  be  an  act  highly  acceptable  to  the  Deity, 
and  to  expiate  many  sins,  while  it  entitles  the  visiter 
at  the  same  time  to  the  patronage  of  the  Prophet  in 
heaven.  The  Moslem  divines  affirm,  that  a  prayer 
said  in  sight  of  the  hejra  is  as  efficacious  as  a  thou- 
sand said  in  any  other  place  except  Mecca,  and  that 
whoever  recites  forty  prayers  in  this  mosque  will  be 
delivered  from  the  torments  of  hell-fire  after  death. 
These  reputed  virtues  attract  swarms  of  pilgrims 
almost  every  month  in  the  year,  and  from  all  parts 
of  the  Mohammedan  world. 

The  entire  superintendence  of  watching,  cleaning, 
and  lighting  is  intrusted  to  the  care  of  forty  or  fifty 
eunuchs,  who  have  an  establishment  of  khatibs, 


MEDINA..  237 

muezzins,  or  mezowars  and  guides,  similar  to  that  of 
their  brethren  of  the  Beitullah.  They  are  persons 
of  far  higher  importance,  and  are  more  richly 
dressed,  though  in  the  same  costume.  Their  usual 
title  is  aga ;  the  chief,  or  Sheik  el  Haram,  is  styled 
Highness,  and  considered  the  principal  person  in 
the  town.  They  have  large  stipends  sent  yearly 
from  Constantinople,  besides  a  share  of  the  fees  and 
donations  of  the  hajjis.  Their  number  is  fixed  at 
500,  and  they  have  correspond-ents  dispersed  over 
the  whole  Turkish  empire.  Besides  their  share  of 
the  income  of  the  mosque,  they  have  their  surra  or 
annuity,  which  is  transmitted  from  Constantinople 
and  Cairo  ;  many  of  their  families  receiving  as  much 
as  100/.  or  200/.  sterling  per  annum,  without  per- 
forming any  duty  whatever.  It  is  from  this  source 
chiefly  that  the  city,  with  its  public  and  pious  founda- 
tions, is  supported,  though  the  greater  portion  of 
these  annuities  is  often  misapplied,  and  only  serves 
to  pamper  a  swarm  of  idle  hypocrites. 

Notwithstanding  some  valuable  presents,  its  repu- 
tation for  wealth,  and  its  splendid  exterior,  the 
mosque  of  the  Prophet  ranks  only  as  a  poor  estab- 
lishment. The  gaudy  colours  displayed  on  every 
side,  the  glazed  columns,  fine  pavements,  and  gilt 
inscriptions,  dazzle  the  siglit  at  first;  but  after  a 
short  pause  it  becomes  evident  to  the  spectator  that 
this  is  an  exhibition  of  tinsel  decoration,  and  not  of 
real  riches.  "  It  will  bear  no  comparison,"  says 
Burckhardt,  "  with  the  shrine  of  the  most  insignifi- 
cant Catholic  saint  in  Europe,  and  may  serve  as  a 
convincing  proof  that,  whatever  may  be  their  super- 
stition and  fanaticism,  the  Moslem  are  not  disposed 
to  make  the  same  pecuniary  sacrifices  to  their  reli- 
gious foundations,  as  the  Popish  or  even  the  Prot- 
estant Christians  do  for  theirs." 

There  are  several  other  places  in  the  neighbour- 
hood which  are  also  included  in  these  pious  visita- 
tions, among  which  are  the  sepulchres  of  the  son 


238      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

daughters,  wives,  aunts,  uncles,  relations,  and  im- 
mediate successors  of  the  Prophet.  So  rich  indeed 
is  Medina  in  the  remains  of  great  saints,  that  they 
have  almost  lost  their  individual  importance,  although 
the  relics  of  any  one  of  the  persons  just  mentioned 
would  be  sufficient  to  immortalize  any  other  Moslem 
town.  A  visit  is  made  to  Gebel  Ohud  to  pray  at  the 
tombs  of  Hamza  and  the  seventy  martyrs  who  fell 
there  in  battle.  A  small  cupola  marks  the  spot 
where  Mohammed  was  struck  by  the  stone  which 
knocked  out  four  of  his  front  teeth.  Koba,  the  vil- 
lage where  he  first  alighted  on  his  flight  from  Mecca, 
and  the  place  where  he  changed  the  kebla  from 
Jerusalem  to  the  Kaaba,  are  the  only  other  spots 
that  the  pilgrims  are  enjoined  to  visit. 

As  to  the  government  of  Medina,  it  has  always 
been  considered  since  the  commencement  of  Islam 
as  forming  a  separate  principality.  Under  the  ca- 
liphs it  was  ruled  by  persons  appointed  by  them, 
and  independent  of  the  sheriffs  of  Mecca.  When 
the  power  of  the  Abbassides  declined,  these  deputies 
threw  off  their  allegiance,  and  exercised  the  same 
influence  in  the  northern  Hejaz  that  the  governors 
of  Mecca  did  in  the  southern.  The  sheriffs,  how- 
ever, often  succeeded  in  extending  a  temporary  au- 
thority over  Medina,  and  whenSelim  I.  mounted  the 
throne,  he  planted  here  a  garrison  of  Turkish  sol- 
diers, under  the  command  of  an  aga,  who  was  to  be 
the  military  chief  of  the  city ;  while  the  civil  jurisdic- 
tion was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Sheik  el  Haram, 
or  Prefect  of  the  Temple,  who  was  to  correspond 
regularly  with  the  capital,  and  to  have  the  rank  of  a 
pasha.  This  mode  of  government,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  short  period  when  the  whole  territory  fell 
under  the  power  of  Mecca,  continued  till  the  time 
of  the  Wahabee  invasion,  about  thirty  years  ago. 
After  the  subjugation  of  that  sect,  Medina  was  again 
placed  under  the  authority  of  a  Turkish  commander. 
The  Aga  el  Haram  takes  the  management  of  the 


SUEZ.  239 

pecuniary  business  of  the  mosque,  and  of  all  eccle- 
siastical affairs.  Next  to  him  in  importance  is  the 
cadi^  though  many  of  the  native  sheiks  still  enjoy 
great  respect  and  consideration. 

After  a  stay  of  three  days  at  the  City  of  the  Pro- 
phet, the  caravans  take  their  departure — the  Syrian 
returns  to'  Damascus,  and  the  Egyptian  to  Cairo,  by 
way  of  Bedr,  Akaba,  and  across  the  desert  to  Suez. 
The  entire  route  of  the  former  from  Mecca  occu- 
pies forty  days,  that  of  the  latter  thirty-seven  :  the 
caravan  to  Sanaa  requires  forty-three  days.  Bedr, 
famous  for  the  battle  fought  by  Mohammed  in  the 
second  year  of  the  Hejira,  contains  upwards  of  five 
hundred  houses,  and  still  boasts  many  rehcs  of  that 
miraculous  engagement.  The  celebrated  field  which 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Moslem  empire  lies  south 
of  the  town  about  a  mile  distant,  at  the  foot  of  the 
hills. 

Suez,  about  seventy  miles  from  Cairo,  and  once  a 
city  of  considerable  wealth  and  splendour,  is  now 
reduced  to  a  paltry  half-ruined  village — a  state  of 
desolation  chiefly  owing  to  the  ravages  committed 
by  the  French,  who  thus  avenged  the  opposition 
they  experienced  from  the  beys  of  Egypt.  The 
•walls  and  fortifications,  which  never  were  of  much 
strength,  are  rapidly  falling  into  decay.  The  har- 
bour is  spacious  and  safe,  and  near  the  shore  are 
some  well-built  khans.  The  water  is  brackish  and 
the  air  bad,  occasioned  by  the  extensive  salt-marshes, 
which  are  filled  with  stagnant  waters.*  The  influ- 
ence of  this  malaria  the  inhabitants  endeavour  to 
counteract  by  drinking  brandy ;  but  the  mortality  is 

♦  A  well  was  discovered  in  1831,  near  Suez,  by  two  English 
engineers,  who  made  several  experimental  borings  before  they 
succeeded.  A  reservoir  containing  1200  cubic  feet  of  good  water 
is  now  resorted  to  by  the  Bedouin  and  the  pilgrim.  By  the  ap- 
plication of  science,  the  deserts  of  Arabia  might  perhaps  be  ren- 
dered habitable . —  Transact,  of  the  Royal  Asiat,  Soc.  Capt.  Head's 
Jtnerweyy  p.  44, 


240  THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE, 

not  diminished,  and  fevers  of  a  malignant  kind  pre- 
vail during  the  spring  and  summer.  It  is  very  thinly 
peopled,  containing  a  mixture  of  Greeks,  Copts,  and 
Arabs.  At  the  time  of  the  pilgrimage  and  the  de- 
parture of  the  fleet  there  is  an  influx  of  strangers  j 
but  nobody  will  reside  permanently  except  from  the 
temptation  of  gain.  There  are  neither  merchants 
nor  artisans,  except  a  few  Greek  shipwrights, — this 
harbour  being  one  of  the  few  in  the  Gulf  where  ves- 
sels can  be  repaired.  In  ancient  times  the  naviga- 
ble canal  (the  bed  of  which,  115  feet  wide,  is  still 
visible)  that  connected  it  with  the  fertile  banks  of 
the  Nile  made  it  an  emporium  of  considerable  celeb- 
rity ;  but  the  disadvantages  under  which  it  labours 
from  its  situation  at  the  extremity  of  a  narrow  sea, 
down  which  the  winds  blow  with  great  force  nine 
months  in  the  year,  render  it  unfit  for  the  purposes 
of  extensive  trade.  The  government  was  formerly 
intrusted  to  a  bey  from  Cairo,  who  kept  a  numerous 
household,  though  the  Bedouins  might  be  called 
complete  masters  of  the  place.  Since  the  power 
of  Ali  Pasha  has  been  established  in  Egypt,  the  au- 
thority of  the  native  sheiks  has  ceased,  and  a  dow- 
lah  nominated  by  the  Turkish  sultan  is  now  the  resi- 
dent governor. 

In  travelling  fromyAkaba  to  Suez,  the  hajjis  often 
turn  aside  from  the  great  route  to  visit  the  shrine 
of  St.  Catherine  and  the  pious  monuments  about 
Mount  Sinai.  The  convent,  though  bearing  the 
name  of  that  saint  as  its  vice-patroness,  is  dedicat'id 
to  the  Transfiguration.  According  to  the  accredited 
tradition  of  the  place,  it  dates  its  origin  from  the 
fourth  century.  Helena,  the  mother  oif  Cmistantine 
the  first  Christian  emperor,  is  said  to  have  erected 
here  a  small  church  to  commemorate  the  spot  where 
the  Lord  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  burning  bush ; 
and  in  the  garden  of  the  convent  a  small  tower  or 
chapel  is  still  shown,  the  foundation  of  which  is 
said  to  have  been  laid  by  her.    The  piety  of  the 


CONVENT    OF    MOUNT    SINAI.  241 

empress  was  imitated  by  others,  and  in  course  of  the 
next  century  similar  buildings  were  erected  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  neighbourhood  ;  but  the  ill  treat- 
ment which  the  monks  and  hermits  suffered  from 
the  Bedouins  induced  them  to  apply  to  Justinian ; 
and  in  compliance  with  their  request,  he  built  a  for- 
tified convent,  capable  of  protecting  them  against 
their  oppressors.  Monastic  estabhshments  had  then 
become  prevalent ;  and  the  generous  emperor  is 
said  to  have  assigned  the  whole  peninsula  in  prop- 
erty to  the  monks. 

It  was  not  till  some  years  afterward  that  it  got 
possession  of  the  corpse  and  obtained  the  name  of 
St.  Catherine,  who  had  suflfered  martyrdom  at  Alex- 
andria, and  was  transported  thence  by  angels  to  the 
highest  peak  of  the  adjacent  mountains.  Of  this 
miracle  one  of  the  friars  was  informed  in  a  vision  ; 
and  search  being  made,  the  body  was  found  and 
entombed  in  the  church,  which  thus  acquired  an 
additional  claim  to  the  veneration  of  the  Greek 
Christians. 

At  the  time  of  the  Saracen  conquests  the  number 
of  priests  and  hermits  belonging  to  this  and*  other 
neighbouring  establishments  is  said  to  have  amounted 
to  6000  or  7000.  Notwithstanding  the  continued 
danger  to  which  they  must  have  been  exposed  from 
these  bigoted  zealots,  they  contrived  to  defend  their 
possessions  against  the  attacks  of  the  hostile  tribes, 
not  by  any  military  array,  but  by  the  more  success- 
ful arms  of  patience,  meekness,  and  money.  Under 
the  sultans  of  Egypt,  they  were  charged  with  the 
protection  of  the  haj-caravans  to  Mecca,  on  that 
part  of  the  route  which  lay  along  the  northern 
frontier  of  their  territory.  The  increasing  power 
of  the  Bedouins  gradually  impaired  their  influ- 
ence and  encroached  on  their  possessions,  until 
they  were  at  length  confined  to  the  walls  of  their 
monastery. 
The  situation  of  the  convent  is  wild  and   pic- 

VOL.  II.— X 


242      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

turesque.     It  stands  at  the  southern  extremity  of  a 
green  valley,  in  a  narrow  recess  which  is  terminated 
by  steep  impending-  rocks.     Its  form  is  an  irregular 
quadrangle  of  about  130  paces,  having  the  appear- 
ance of  a  fortress,  enclosed  with  high  and  solid  walls 
of  granite,  and  defended  by  several  small  towers. 
When  the  French  were  in  Egypt,  a  part  of  the  east- 
ern wall,  which  had  fallen  down,  was  rebuilt  by 
order  of  General  Kleber.     Within  there  are  eight  or 
ten  small  court-yards,  some  of  which  are  neatly  laid 
out  in  beds  of  flowers  and  vegetables  ;  a  few  date- 
trees  and  cypresses  also  grow  there,  besides  a  quan- 
tity of  vines.     The  distribution  of  the  interior  apart- 
ments is  very  irregidar.     There  is  a  great  number 
of  small  rooms  in  the  lower  and  upper  stories,  most 
of  which  are  at  present  unoccupied.     The  principal 
edifice  is  the  church,  which  was  built  by  Justinian, 
though  it  has  since  undergone  frequent  repairs.     It 
forms  an  oblong  square  ;  the  roof  is  supported  by  a 
double  row  of  fine  granite  pillars,  coated  with  white 
plaster  ;  and  the  floor  is  paved  with  beautiful  slabs 
of  marble.    An  abundance  of  silver  lamps,  paintings, 
and  portraits  of  saints  adorn  the  walls  round  the  altar; 
among  the  latter  is  a  large  picture  of  the  Transfigura 
tion,  portraits  of  Justinian,  Theodora,  and  St.  Cathe- 
rine, and  a  St.  Christopher,  with  a  dog's  head.     The 
silver  lid  of  a  sarcophagus  likewise  attracts  attention ; 
upon  which  is  represented  at  full  length  the  figure 
of  the  Empress  Anne  of  Russia,  who  entertained 
the  idea  of  being  interred  here,  although  the  monks 
were  disappointed  of  that  honour.  There  are  twenty- 
seven  smaller  churches  or  chapels  dispersed  over 
the  convent,  in  many  of  which  daily  masses  are 
read,  and  in  all  of  them  one  at  least  every  Sabbath. 
None  of  them  have  steeples  ;  and  as  there  is  but  one 
bell,  which  is  rung  only  on  Sundays,  it  is  customary 
to  summon  the  monks  to  daily  prayers  by  striking 
with  a  stick  on  a  long  piece  of  granite  suspended 
from  ropes,  the  sound  of  which  is  heard  all  over  the 


CONVENT    OF    MOUNT    SINAI.  243 

premises.     The  call  to  vespers  is  made  by  striking 
a  piece  of  dry  wood  in  the  same  manner. 

In  former  times,  every  principal  Christian  sect, 
except  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  had  its  chapel  in 
the  convent  of  Sinai ;  but  most  of  these  have  long 
been  abandoned  by  their  owners.  What  may  be 
considered  more  remarkable  is,  that  close  by  the 
great  church  stands  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  spa- 
cious enough  to  contain  two.  hundred  people  at  pray- 
ers. It  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  the  fifteenth  or 
sixteenth  century,  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  the 
monastery,  and  is  sometimes  visited  by  straggling 
pilgrims.  The  greatest  number  of  these  is  perhaps 
from  sixty  to  eighty  annually ;  but  so  late  as  the 
last  century,  regular  haj-caravans  used  to  come  from 
Cairo  as  well  as  from  Jerusalem  ;  800  Armenians 
are  stated  to  have  arrived  in  one  day,  and  500 
Copts  on  another  occasion.  Adjoining  the  con- 
vent is  a  pleasant  well-stocked  garden,  which  is  en- 
tered by  a  subterraneous  passage.  It  produces  fruits 
and  vegetables  of  various  kinds,  and  of  the  finest 
quality. 

The  number  of  monks,  most  of  whom  are  natives 
of  the  Greek  islands,  does  not  now  exceed  twenty 
or  thirty.  They  have  a  president  or  prior ;  but  the 
economos  or  steward  is  the  true  head  of  the  com- 
munity, and  manages  all  its  affairs.  The  superior 
of  the  whole  order  is  the  archbishop  or  reis,  w^ho  is 
chosen  by  a  council  of  delegates,  and  formally  con- 
firmed by  the  Greek  patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  In  an- 
cient times  he  resided  in  the  convent ;  but  since  its 
affairs  have  been  on  the  decline,  it  has  been  found 
expedient  that  he  should  live  abroad ;  the  Bedouins 
considering  his  presence  as  entitling  them  to  exact 
very  high  fees,  especially  on  his  entering  the  estab- 
hshment.  On  this  occasion  10,000  dollars  (2156/.) 
were  sometimes  demanded ;  hence  the  monks,  rather 
than  purchase  this  honour  so  dearly,  shut  up  the 
gate,  and  have  dispensed  with  the  archbishop's  pres- 


244      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

ence  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Their 
discipline  with  regard  to  food  and  prayer  is  very  se- 
vere. They  all  employ  themselves  in  some  profes- 
sion ;  and  their  little  fraternity  can  boast  of  a  cook, 
a  distiller,  a  baker,  a  shoemaker,  a  tailor,  a  carpen- 
ter, a  candle-maker,  a  mason,  and  other  handicrafts, 
each  of  whom  has  his  workshop,  with  a  stock  of 
rusty  utensils,  which  still  indicate  traces  of  the  for- 
mer industry  of  the  establishment.  Brandy  made 
from  dates  is  the  chief  solace  these  recluses  eiijoy ; 
and. they  are  permitted,  even  during  their  fasts,  to 
indulge  in  this  domestic  beverage.  They  have  a 
library,  which  contains  about  1500  Greek  volumes 
and  700  Arabic  manuscripts ;  but  of  this  they  make 
little  use,  as  they  can  read  or  write  no  language 
except  their  vernacular  tongue.  Notwithstanding 
their  ignorance,  they  are  fond  of  seeing  strangers  in 
their  wilderness,  and  always  receive  them  with  hos- 
pitality and  kindness.  As  the  gate  has  been  long 
walled  up,  visiters  and  provisions  are  hoisted  up  by 
a  windlass  with  a  rope  and  a  noose ;  a  stick  being 
fixed  transversely  to  the  lower  end,  which  is  let 
down  from  a  window  about  forty  feet  from  the 
ground. 

The  only  habitual  frequenters  of  the  convent  are 
the  Bedouins.  They  are  never  indeed  admitted 
within  the  walls ;  but  they  have  established  the 
custom,  that  whoever  among  them,  whether  man, 
woman,  or  child,  comes  here,  must  be  supplied  with 
bread  for  breakfast  and  supper,  which  is  lowered 
down  in  a  basket.  Scarcely  a  day  passes  that  the 
inmates  have  not  to  feed  thirty  or  forty  persons  ; 
and  during  the  last  century  the  demand  was  still 
heavier,  as  the  Arabs  had  a  privilege  to  call  for  a 
dish  of  cooked  meat  in  addition  to  their  allowance 
of  bread.  In  consequence  of  this  practice  disputes 
continually  happen :  if  the  Bedouins  are  not  satisfied 
with  the  distribution  of  food  or  fuel,  they  assail  the 
monks,  lay  waste  the  garden,  and  throw  stones,  or 


CONVENT    OF    MOUNT    SINAI.  245 

even  fire  their  muskets  from  the  surrounding  heights 
into  the  convent.  The  priests  in  their  turnare 
sometimes  obhged  to  retaliate,  for  they  have  a 
well-furnished  armoury  and  two  small  cannon  ;  but 
they  take  great  care  never  to  kill  any  of  their 
assailants. 

Notwithstanding  the  daily  claims  on  their  char- 
ity, the  expenses  of  the  monastery  are  supposed  to 
be  very  moderate.  The  yearly  consumption  of  corn 
Burckhardt  estimates  at  2500  bushels,  and  theii 
annual  expenditure  at  lOOOZ.  sterling.  A  consi- 
derable revenue  must  arise  from  their  possessions 
abroad ;  for  besides  the  convent  at  Cairo,  which 
contains  a  prior  and  about  fifty  monks,  they  have 
establishments  and  landed  property  in  many  other 
parts  of  the  East,  especially  in  the  Archipelago  and 
at  Candia.  They  have  also  a  small  church  at  Cal- 
cutta, and  another  at  Surat. 

The  mountains  and  deserts  in  the  neighbourhood, 
being  the  scenery  of  many  events  in  Scripture  his- 
tory, are  pointed  out  by  the  hermits  to  the  attention 
of  their  visiters.  On  Gebel  Mousa  is  shown  a  small 
church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin ;  a  convent  which 
bears  the  name  of  St.  Elias,  erected  on  the  spot 
where  Elijah  was  fed  by  the  ravens  ;  and  a  poor 
mosque  without  any  ornaments,  where  the  Bedouins 
slaughter  sheep  in  honour  of  Moses,  making  vows 
to  him,  and  entreating  his  intercession  with  Heaven 
in  their  favour.  At  a  small  distance,  a  place  is 
shown  in  the  rock,  somewhat  resembling  the  print 
of  the  forepart  of  the  foot,  which  is  said  to  be  that 
of  the  Prophet,  and  is  devoutly  kissed  by  all  the 
Moslem.  The  head  of  the  golden  calf  which  the 
Israelites  worshipped,  now  changed  into  stone  ;  the 
place  where  the  brazen  serpent  was  erected ;  the 
burial-place  of  Moses  and  Aaron  ;  the  grotto  where 
St.  Athanasius  lived  ;  the  spot  touched  by  the  foot 
of  Mohammed's  camel  on  its  way  to  heaven ;  the 
pulpit  and  petrified  pot  or  kettle  of  Moses  ;  and  the 

X2 


246      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

granite  rock,  resembling  a  chair,  on  which  he  sat 
and  beheld  the  fight  between  Joshua  and  the  Amale- 
kites, — are  among  the  sacred  spots  pointed  out  to 
the  credulity  of  pilgrims,  and  identified  by  the  bro- 
therhood, who  find  it  their  interest  to  multiply  objects 
of  curiosity  and  veneration. 

On  the  very  summit  of  Gebel  Mousa  stands  a 
church,  ^yhich,  though  now  much  dilapidated,  is  an 
object  of  great  attraction.  The  Arabs  believe  that 
the  original  tables  of  the  commandments  are  buried 
under  the  pavement ;  and  they  have  made  excava- 
tions on  every  side  in  the  hope  of  finding  them. 
They  more  particularly  revere  this  spot  from  a  be- 
lief that  the  rains  which  fall  on  the  peninsula  are 
under  the  immediate  control  of  Moses  ;  and  they 
are  persuaded  that  the  monks  of  St.  Catherine  are 
in  possession  of  the  taouraf^  or  book  which  he  sent 
dow^n  from  heaven  ;  upon  the  opening  and  shutting 
of  which  depends  the  state  of  the  weather.  The 
reputation  which  the  holy  men  have  thus  obtained 
of  having  the  dispensation  of  rain  in  their  hands 
sometimes  becomes  rather  troublesome  to  them, 
especially  as  they  have  encouraged  that  superstitious 
belief  with  a  view  to  enhance  their  own  credit.  By 
a  natural  inference  the  Bedouins  have  concluded, 
that  if  they  can  bring  rain,  they  have  it  likewise  in 
their  power  to  withhold  it ;  and,  in  consequence, 
whenever  a  dearth  happens,  they  accuse  them  of 
malevolence,  and  often  tumultuously  assemble  to 
compel  their  prayers.  The  same  imputation  they 
lay  to  their  charge  when  violent  floods  happen  to 
burst  down  the  hills  and  destroy  their  cattle  or  date- 
trees.  A  peasant  some  years  since,  whose  sheep 
and  camels  had  been  swept  off"  by  the  torrent,  went 
in  a  fury  to  the  convent  and  fired  his  musket  at  it, 
exclaiming,  "  You  have  opened  the  book  so  much 
that  we  are  all  drowned  !"  The  monks  pacified  him 
with  presents  ;  but,  on  departing,  he  begged  that  in 


ROCK    OF    MERIBAH.  247 

future  they  would  only  open  half  the  taourat,  'in 
order  that  the  rains  might  be  more  moderate. 

In  a  valley  between  Mount  Moses  and  Mount 
Catherine  stands  the  convent  of  the  Forty  Martyrs, 
with  a  good  garden  and  an  orchard  of  olive-trees. 
Near  it  is  the  Fountain  of  the  Partridge  {Bir  Sho- 
mar),  so  named  from  having  been  revealed  by  one  of 
these  birds  to  the  priests  when  they  were  removing 
the  body  of  their  patroness,  and  fainting  with  thirst. 
In  the  same  valley  a  block  of  granite  is  shown  as 
being  the  Rock  of  Meribah,  out  of  which  water 
issued  when  struck  by  the  rod  of  Moses.  It  lies 
quite  insulated  by  the  side  of  the  path,  and  seems  to 
have  formerly  belonged  to  Mount  Sinai,  which  hangs 
in  a  variety  of  precipices  all  over  the  valley.  Burck- 
hardt  says  the  block  is  about  tv/elve  feet  in  height, 
of  an  irregular  shape,  approaching  to  a  cube.  There 
are  about  twenty  apertures  on  its  surface,  lying 
nearly  in  a  straight  line  round  its  three  sides, 
through  which  the  water  is  said  to  have  burst  out. 
These  fissures  are,  for  the  most  part,  ten  or  twelve 
inches  long,  two  or  three  broad,  and  about  the  same 
in  depth  ;  some  of  them  appearing  to  be  incrusted 
all  over  like  the  inside  of  a  teakettle. 

This  stone  is  greatly  venerated  by  the  Bedouins, 
who  put  grass  into  the  crevices  as  offerings  to  the 
memory  of  Moses,  in  the  same  manner  as  they  place 
it  upon  the  tombs  of  their  saints ;  this  vegetable 
being  to  them  the  most  precious  gift  of  nature,  and 
that  upon  which  their  existence  depends.  Shaw, 
Pococke,  and  the  earlier  travellers,  in  describmg  this 
rock,  seem  credulously  to  have  adopted  the  extrava- 
gant legends  of  the  monks.  The  former  regards 
the  incrusted  apertures  as  the  lively  and  demon- 
strative tokens  of  their  having  been  anciently  so 
many  fountains ;  and  is  of  opinion  that  art  or  chance 
could  by  no  means  be  concerned  in  the  contrivance, 
— evidently  afraid  to  injure  the  reputation  of  the 
Scripture  miracle.     More  recent  visiters  have  yen- 


248      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE, 

tured,  without  impugning  the  truth  of  Sacred  History, 
to  question  the  antiquity  and  identity  of  this  sur- 
prising block,  and  consider  it  one  of  the  deceptions 
invented  by  the  brothers  of  the  convent,  w^ho  have 
a  personal  interest  in  encouraging  this  superstition. 
Every  observer,  Burckhardt  has  remarked,  must  be 
convinced,  on  the  slightest  examination,  that  most 
of  the  crevices  are  the  work  of  art, — three  or  four 
of  them  perhaps  are  natural, — and  these  may  have 
given  rise  to  the  tradition.  That  the  incrustation 
is  the  effect  of  moisture  may  be  quite  true  ;  for  the 
adjoining  rocks,  where  water  is  still  dripping,  are 
marked  in  the  same  manner  ;  so  that  if  a  fragment 
of  the  cliff  were  to  fall  down,  it  might  be  difficult  in 
a  few  years  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  two. 
What  renders  the  locality  of  this  venerated  stone 
more  suspicious,  is  the  fact  that  this  part  of  the 
desert  abounds  with  perennial  springs,  which  seems 
to  prove  decidedly  that  it  cannot  be  the  parched 
vale  of  Rephidim,  "  where  there  was  no  water  for 
the  people  to  drink."  While,  therefore,  the  miracle 
of  Moses  remains  untouched,  we  may  be  permitted 
to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  the  monks  and  Bedouins, 
who  are  naturally  pleased  to  see  strangers  struck 
with  religious  surprise  at  the  same  objects  which 
they  themselves  revere,  perhaps  with  all  the  sincer- 
ity of  a  conscientious  belief. 

Not  far  from  Sinai  a  valley  was  discovered  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which 
created  a  considerable  sensation  in  Europe  from  the 
rocks  being  covered  with  inscriptions  in  unknown 
characters  and  uncouth  figures;  this  was  the  famous 
Gehel  Mokkateh,  or  Written  Mountain.  Learned  soci- 
eties and  several  governments  encouraged  travel- 
lers to  examine  them  ;  and  Mr.  Clayton,  bishop  of 
Clogher,  offered  500Z.  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
journey,  provided  any  man  of  letters  would  undertake 
to  copy  them.  Expectations  were  entertained  that 
these  inscriptions  might  furnish  some  testimony 


THE    WRITTEN    MOUNTAIN.  249 

eoncerning  the  passage  of  the  Israehtes  through 
the  Desert,  or  their  residence  in  that  country.  But 
on  nearer  inspection  these  sanguine  hopes  vanished. 
The  carvings  were  found  by  those  who  examined 
them  to  be  for  the  most  part  httle  else  than  the 
names  of  travellers  or  pilgrims,  ill-engraven  in  Greek, 
Jewish,  and  Arabic  characters.  Crosses  were  seen 
among  these  hieroglyphics,  and  a  great  many  draw- 
ings of  mountain-goats  and  camels,  the  latter  some- 
times laden,  or  with  riders.  The  whole  sandstone 
cliffs,  occasionally  to  the  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet,  are  thickly  covered  with  such  delineations, 
which  are  continued  for  several  miles  with  only  a 
few  intervals. 

Different  opinions  have  been  entertained  as  to  the 
age  and  purport  of  these  writings  ;  the  most  proba- 
ble is  that  which  ascribes  them  to  the  hajjis  in  the 
sixth  century,  who  were  in  the  habit,  during  the 
pilgrimage,  of  visiting  the  holy  places  about  Sinai, 
or  rather  Mount  Serbal ;  which  Burckhardt  sup- 
poses to  have  been  anciently  the  principal  place  of 
devotion,  from  the  circumstance  that,  though  similar 
inscriptions  abound  in  other  parts,  none  are  to  be 
found  at  Gebel  Mousa  or  Gebel  Katerin.  Pococke, 
Montague,  Niebuhr,  and  other  travellers,  copied 
them  ;  but  little  success  has  been  made  in  decipher- 
ing their  meaning,  though,  from  what  is  knowTi,  the 
general  opinion  is  that  they  are  of  no  great  import- 
ance. The  top  of  the  Written  Mountain  is  covered 
with  large  stones  inscribed  with  hieroglyphics,  some 
of  them  standing  upright,  while  others  are  lying  flat. 
They  appear  to  be  sepulchral  monuments  with  epi- 
taphs, and  may  either  indicate  that  the  ruins  in  the 
neighbourhood  were  once  populous  cities,  or  be 
attributed  to  the  v/ell-known  propensity  of  the  Arabs 
to  bury  their  dead  on  high  places.  There  are  few 
of  the  Bedouin  tribes  who  have  not  one  or  more 
tombs  of  sheiks  or  protecting  saints  on  the  top  of 
the  hills,  in  whose  honour  they  still  offer  sacrifice. 


250      THE  MOHAMMEDAN  PILGRIMAGE. 

A  goat  is  piously  slain  at  the  sepulchre  of  Aaron  on 
Mount  Hor  ;  and  the  tomb  of  Sheik  Saleh,  near 
Sinai,  ranks  next  in  veneration  to  the  Mount  of 
Moses.  On  its  rude  walls  are  suspended  silk  tassels, 
handkerchiefs,  ostrich-eggs,  halters,  bridles,  and 
similar  articles,  as  votive  gifts.  Once  a  year  all  the 
tribes  of  the  Towara  Arabs  in  their  best  attire  repair 
to  the  spot,  and  remain  encamped  three  days  :  during 
which  many  sheep  are  sacrificed,  camel-races  run, 
and  the  nights  spent  in  dancing  and  singing.  Mer- 
cantile transactions  are  usually  connected  with  these 
sepulchral  pilgrimages  ;  and  fairs  are  annually  held 
on  the  spots  where  the  bones  of  the  patriarchs  and 
prophets  are  supposed  to  rest. 

The  only  other  place  in  this  interesting  peninsula, 
connected  with  the  hermits  of  Sinai,  is  the  small 
convent  of  El  Bourg  near  Tor.  Here  they  possess  a 
spacious  enclosure,  stocked  with  date-trees,  whence 
the  fruit  is  conveyed  to  their  monastery,  where  it  is 
used  for  making  brandy.  A  solitary  monk  inhabits 
the  little  fort  built  close  to  the  garden-wall ;  and, 
notwithstanding  his  care  in  drawing  up  the  ladder 
by  which  he  ascends  to  his  habitation,  he  is  not 
unfrequently  subjected  to  the  visits  of  the  Bedouins, 
who  from  time  to  time  levy  a  contribution  of  bread 
and  provisions  as  the  price  of  their  protection.  Tor 
has  been  identified,  on  account  of  its  springs  and 
palm-groves,  with  the  ancient  Elim  ;  but  this  seems 
to  rest  on  no  better  authority  than  many  other  tra- 
ditions. The  town  is  described  as  a  wretched 
assemblage  of  huts,  in  the  occupation  of  a  few 
families  drawn  together  by  its  waters  and  fruit-trees. 
The  fortress  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, but  is  now  in  a  state  of  decay.  A  few 
miles  to  the  north,  and  Avithin  a  short  distance  of 
the  sea,  lies  the  Gebel  Narkous,  or  Mountain  of  the 
Bell,  which  is  said  to  emit  a  sound  "  sometimes 
resembhng  musical  glasses,  sometimes  like  one 
piece  of  metal  struck  against  another."    This  phe- 


MOUNTAIN    OF    THE  BELL.  253 

nomenon  is  variously  explained  by  travellers.  The 
Arabs  believe  that  the  bell  belongs  to  a  convent 
buried  under  the  sand.  The  Greeks  have  their 
legends  about  saints,  demons,  and  genii,  who  cele- 
brate their  respective  mysteries  under  this  incom- 
prehensible precipice.  Mr.  Fazakerley  says  the 
sound  was  louder  or  softer,  according  as  the  sand 
was  more  or  less  pressed ;  and  that  at  the  sumo 
time  a  quivering  or  vibration  was  very  sensibly  felt. 
Burckhardt  observed  nothing  that  could  throw  any 
light  on  it ;  nor  did  he  discover  the  slightest  mark 
of  volcanic  action,  to  which  he  supposed  the  thun- 
dering noise  might  be  attributable.  Perhaps  the 
miracle  may  be  explained  by  the  existence  of  a 
cavity  underneath,  in  which  steam  or  rarefied  air  is 
generated  ;  or  by  the  moving  of  the  fine  white  sand, 
of  which  the  bank  is  composed,  over  the  moister 
and  harder  sand  beneath.* 

*  Similar  sounds  are  not  uncommon  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  (See  Family  Library,  No.  LIV.)  In  a  paper  lately  read 
before  the  Geological  Society  in  London,  Sir  John  Herschel 
suggests  as  the  only  probable  explanation  which  occurred  to 
liim  of  the  sounds  at  Narkous,  that  they  are  caused  by  the 
generation  and  condensation  of  subterraneous  steam  ;  and  be- 
long to  the  same  class  of  phenomena  as  the  combustion  of  a  jet 
of  hydrogen  gas  in  glass  tubes.  He  makes  the  general  remark, 
that  wherever  extensive  subterraneous  caverns  exist,  commu- 
nicating with  each  other  or  with  the  atmosphere  by  means  of 
small  orifices,  considerable  difference  of  temperature  may  occa- 
sion currents  of  aii  to  pass  through  those  apertures  with  sufficient 
velocity  for  producing  sonorous  vibrations.  The  sounds  described 
by  Humboldt,  as  heard  at  sunrise  by  those  who  sleep  on  certain 
granitic  rocks  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  may  be  explained  on 
this  principle. 
Vol.  IL— Y 


254  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


HISTORY    OF    THE   WAHABEES. 

Origin  of  the  Wahabees— Their  Founder,  Abdel  Wahab — Ac- 
count of  their  Doctrines — Success  of  Ibn  Saoud  and  Abdeia- 
zeez  in  Nejed — Siege  and  Plunder  of  Kerbela — Submission 
of  Mecca  and  Medina — Destruction  of  religious  Monuments 
— Murder  of  Abdelazeez — Accession  of  Saoud — His  Charac- 
ter— Government — Revenues — Military  Tactics — Revival  of 
the  pilgrimage — Predatory  Incursions  of  the  Wahabees — At- 
tempts of  the  Turkish  Government  to  suppress  them — Expe- 
dition from  Egypt  lands  at  Yembo — Defeat  of  Toussoun  Bey 
at  Jedeidn— Recapture  of  Medina  by  the  Turks — Thomas 
Keith,  a  Native  of  Edinburgh,  made  Governor  of  the  City — 
Recovery  of  Mecca  and  Hejaz — Mohammed  Ah  takes  the 
Command  in  Person— Arrest  and  Death  of  Ghaleb — Repulse 
of  the  Turks  at  Taraba — Capture  of  Gurtfode — Death  of 
Saoud — Accession  of  Abdallah — Strength  of  the  Turkish 
j^rmy — Defeat  of  the  Wahabees  at  Bissei — Surrender  of  Ta- 
raba and  Beishe— Cruelties  of  Ali — His  Return  to  Egypt — 
Campaign  of  Toussoun  in  Nejed — Treaty  of  Peace  with  Ab- 
datian — Treachery  of  Ali  and  Renewal  of  Hostilities — Expe- 
dition under  Ibrahim  Pasha — His  success  in  Nejed — Siege 
and  Surrender  of  Deraiah — Death  of  Abdallah — Suppression 
of  the  Wahabees  and  Destruction  of  their  Capital — Reflec- 
tions on  the  Character  of  their  Government  and  Rehgion. 

OxE  of  the  most  remarkable  revolutions  which 
Arabia  has  witnessed  since  the  days  of  Mohammed, 
was  that  effected  by  the  Wahabees,  a  relig-ious  sect, 
who  evinced  in  their  military  enthusiasm  all  the 
'  ardour  and  intolerance  of  the  early  Saracens.  Their 
founder,  from  whom  they  took  their  name,  was  Ab- 
del Wahab,  of  the  pastoral  tribe  of  Temin,  in  Nejed, 
and  of  the  clan  called  El  Wahabe,  of  which  his 
father  was  sheik.  He  was  born  in  1691  at  the  vil- 
lage of  El  Ayeneh,  in  the  province  of  El  Ared.  In 
his  youth  he  had  visited  Mecca,  Medina,  Bussora, 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  255 

Bagdad,  and  various  other  schools  of  the  principal 
cities  in  the  East ;  and  being-  convinced,  by  what  he 
had  observed  during-  his  travels,  that  the  primitive 
faith  of  Islam  had  become  totally  corrupted  in  prac- 
tice, and  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  Turks  and 
Persians  were  heretics,  he  determined  to  assume 
the  character  of  a  reformer.  His  manners  were 
naturally  grave  and  austere ;  while  his  talents  and 
learning  secured  for  him  the  respect  of  his  country- 
men, among  whom  he  made  several  converts  by 
means  of  his  writings  and  his  reputation  for  wisdom. 

The  religion  and  government  of  this  sect  may  be 
very  briefly  defined,  as  a  Mohammedan  puritanism 
joined  to  a  Bedouin  phylarchy,  in  which  the  great 
chief  is  both  the  political  and  religious  leader  of  the 
nation.  In  their  creed  they  are  perfectly  orthodox. 
The  unity  of  God  is  the  fundamental  principle  of 
their  faith.  They  believe  in  the  Prophet,  but  re- 
gard him  as  a  man  essentially  mortal,  though  gifted 
with  a  divine  mission.  They  reject  the  fables  and 
false  glosses  of  the  Koran,  acknowledging  only  the 
traditions  of  the  Sonnees.  As  they  consider  all  men 
equal  in  the  sight  of  God,  they  hold  it  sinful  to  in- 
voke the  intercession  of  departed  saints,  or  to  honour 
their  mortal  remains  more  than  those  of  any  other 
person.  Hence  chapels,  cupolas,  and  monuments, 
where  reverence  was  paid  to  their  memory,  they 
condemned  as  an  abomination,  and  forbade  them  to 
be  visited.  To  swear  by  Mohammed  is  criminal ; 
and  they  accuse  the  Turks  of  idolatry  when  they 
give  him  the  title  of  lord  in  their  prayers,  or  revere 
him  in  a  manner  which  approaches  adoration. 

In  morals  they  were  pure  and  rigid ;  they  repro- 
bated the  use  of  spirituous  liquors  and  other  exhil- 
arating substitutes  ;  they  condemned  all  sensual 
indulgences,  the  neglect  of  justice  and  almsgiving, 
the  common  practice  of  fraud  and  treachery,  usury, 
games  of  chance,  and  the  other  vices  with  which 
even  the  sacred  cities  were  polluted.    In  the  true 


256  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

spirit  of  fanaticism,  they  were  as  zealous  about  the 
inferior  as  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law.  Next 
to  the  war  which  they  declared  against  saints  and 
sepulchres,  their  indignation  was  principally  turned 
against  dress  and  luxury  :  they  strictly  forbade  the 
wearing  of  silk  and  the  smoking  of  tobacco  ;  and  cut 
from  their  heads  the  only  tuft  of  hair  which  their 
early  Moslem  discipline  had  left  them.  Among 
other  unwarrantable  acts  which  they  abolished,  was 
that  of  praying  over  the  rosary,  and  lamenting  the 
dead,  thinking  it  impious  to  mourn  for  the  soul  of  a 
brother  in  heaven.  They  did  not,  however,  so  far 
strip  themselves  of  all  superstition  as  to  abolish  the 
ceremonies  of  ablution  and  the  Meccan  pilgrimage, 
or  even  those  of  kissing  the  black  stone  and  throw- 
ing pebbles  at  the  devil. 

The  doctrines  of  Abdel  Wahab,  it  will  be  seen, 
were  not  those  of  a  new  religion ;  though  they  were 
so  represented  by  his  enemies,  and  have  been  de- 
scribed as  such  by  several  European  travellers.* 
His  sole  guide  was  the  Koran  and  the  orthodox  tra- 
ditions ;  and  his  efforts  were  entirely  directed  to 
remove  corruptions  and  abuses,  and  restore  the  faith 
of  Islam  to  its  original  purity.  Whether  this  great 
reformer,  when  he  preached  to  his  countrymen  in 
the  villages  of  Nejed,  had  any  idea  of  establishing  a 
new  dynasty  to  reign  over  the  proselytes  of  Arabia, 
is  much  to  be  doubted.  Neither  his  birth,  nor  the 
strength  of  his  tribe,  could  authorize  him  in  enter- 
taining such  a  design.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
his  doctrines  had  a  favourable  effect  on  the  people, 
by  suppressing  the  infidel  indifference  which  uni- 
versally prevailed,  aud  which  has  generally  a  more 

*  The  tenets  of  the  Wahabees  were  erroneously  stated  by 
Rousseau  ( 1808)  in  his  "  Description  of  the  Pashalic  of  Bagdad  ;" 
and  in  a  Memoir  of  this  Sect  in  the  "  Mines  de  I'Onent."  What 
is  said  of  them  in  Niebuhr  and  Valentia  is  not  very  correct. 
The  best  and  fullest  account  of  them  is  given  by  Burckhardt, 
Mons.  Corancez,  and  Mengin  (Append,  tome  ii). 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  257 

baneful  effect  on  the  morals  of  a  nation  than  the 
decided  acknowledgment  even  of  a  false  religion. 

To  trace  the  history  of  this  sect,  from  its  origin 
to  the  vast  ascendency  which  it  gained  in  Arabia, 
were  merely  to  record  events  similar  to  those  which 
daily  occur  in  the  feudal  wars  of  the  desert.  It  was 
about  the  year  1746,  when  Abdel  Wahab  was  com- 
pelled, by  order  of  the  governor  of  El  Hassa,  to 
quit  his  native  village,  where  for  eight  years,  in  the 
capacity  of  sheik,  he  had  peaceably  disseminated  his 
opinions,  and  made  converts  of  several  neighbouring 
chiefs.  Having  escaped  the  poniard  of  an  assassin, 
he  repaired  to  Deraiah,  and  obtained  a  friendly  asy- 
lum from  Mohammed  ibn  Saoud,  sheik  of  the  Beni 
Mokren,  a  branch  of  the  Wold  Ali  belonging  to  the 
Aeneze  tribe.  Here  he  continued  to  inculcate  his 
doctrines,  which  soon  gained  credit  enough  to  en- 
courage the  extension  of  his  project,  and  enable  him 
to  employ  force  to  subdue  the  refractory.  Of  the 
numerous  hordes  scattered  over  the  central  wastes, 
some  offered  their  voluntary  submission,while  others 
combined  against  him,  and  refused  to  acknowledge 
either  his  temporal  or  spiritual  authority.  To  in- 
crease the  activity  of  the  new  missionaries,  they 
were  diligently  instructed  in  regard  to  the  merit  of 
using  arms  to  convince  heretics  and  infidels.  The 
temptations  of  plunder  were  added  to  the  stimulants 
of  religious  zeal  ;  and  a  share  of  the  booty  taken  in 
battle  was  always  distributed  among  the  conquerors, 
according  to  the  strict  law  of  the  Koran. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  great  founder  of  the 
sect  himself  assumed  any  other  character  than  that 
of  their  apostle  or  ecclesiastical  ruler.  His  constant 
residence  was  at  Deraiah  until  his  death  in  1787, 
when  he  had  reached  the  advanced  age  of  95,  He 
possessed  in  a  high  degree  the  art  of  persuasion, 
and  is  said  to  have  captivated  all  hearts  by  his  elo- 
quence. Equally  distinguished  as  an  able  politician 
and  an  intrepid  warrior,  he  maintained  to  the  last 

Y2 


258  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

the  influence  which  he  had  gained  by  his  sword  over 
the  destinies  of  Arabia.  He  had  all  the  uxorious 
propensities  of  Mohammed,  and  his  twenty  wives 
produced  him  eighteen  children. 

The  first  military  champion  of  the  new  doctrines, 
and  the  political  founder  of  the  Wahabee  govern- 
ment, was  Mohammed  ibn  Saoud,  who  had  married 
the  daughter  of  Abdel  Wahab.  When  he  commenced 
his  missionary  exploits  under  the  title  of  emir,  ac- 
companied by  his  eldest  son  Abdelazeez,  his  force 
was  so  small,  that  in  his  first  skirmish  with  the 
enemy  he  had  with  him  only  seven  camel-riders. 
While  the  venerable  apostle  contented  himself  with 
making  proselytes  at  Deraiah,  the  two  warriors 
successively  conquered  Nejed,  and  most  of  the  great 
Bedouin  tribes  who  annually  visited  that  territory 
in  quest  of  pasturage.  The  earliest  and  most  formi- 
dable of  their  opponents  was  Erar,  sheik  of  El  Hassa. 
The  first  army  which  he  sent  against  them,  in  1757, 
was  defeated.  Again  he  made  his  appearance  in 
person,  at  the  head  of  4000  men,  with  four  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  laid  siege  to  Deraiah ;  but  he  was 
again  repulsed,  and  compelled  to  retreat  in  great 
disorder.  The  death  of  Ibn  Saoud,  in  1765,  left 
Abdelazeez  sole  commander  of  the  sectarian  army ; 
and  by  his  bravery  and  indefatigable  eiforts  their 
victories  were  pushed  to  the  remotest  provinces  of 
Arabia.  Mekrami,  sheik  of  Nejeran,  from  being  an 
enemy,  became  a  devoted  follower ;  the  sheriff  of 
Abu-Arish  was  also  reduced  to  obedience,  and  by 
their  means  the  new  doctrines  were  spread  from 
the  coast  of  Bahrein  to  the  confines  of  Mocha  and 
Aden.  As  the  cattle  and  spoils  of  the  unconverted 
were  unceremoniously  seized  by  the  Wahabees,  a 
title  by  which  they  now  became  known,  numbers 
turned  proselytes  to  save  their  property,  and  testified 
the  sincerity  of  their  faith  by  attacking  and  plun- 
dering their  neighbours. 

After  many  hard  struggles  the  whole  of  the  Nejed 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  259 

had  embraced  the  reformed  doctrines.  It  had  also 
assumed  a  new  poUtical  condition ;  and  instead  of 
being  divided  as  formerly  into  a  number  of  small 
independent  territories  or  clanships,  perpetually  at 
war  with  each  other,  it  became  the  seat  of  a  formi- 
dable power,  under  a  chief  whose  authority,  hke 
that  of  the  first  cahphs,  was  supreme  both  in  civil 
and  spiritual  affairs.  Yet  hostilities  had  not  been 
declared  ;  nor  did  the  Wahabees  encroach  upon  the 
rights  of  the  two  governments  nearest  to  them, — 
Bagdad  and  Hejaz.  The  pilgrim-caravans  passed 
through  their  land  without  molestation.  They  were 
even  on  friendly  terms  with  Serour,  sheriff  of  Mecca, 
and,  in  1781,  obtained  leave  to  perform  their  devo- 
tions at  the  Kaaba.  Their  increase  of  power  seems 
at  first  to  have  excited  the  jealousy  of  Sheriff  Gha- 
ieb ;  and  within  a  few  years  after  his  accession  to 
the,  government  he  had  declared  open  war  against 
them,  which  was  carried  on  in  the  Bedouin  siyle, 
interrupted  only  by  a  few  shortlived  truces.  Being 
then  in  regular  correspondence  with  the  Porte,  he 
left  no  means  untried  for  prejudicing  the  Ottoman 
government  against  the  sectarians.  He  represented 
them  as  infidels  ;  and  their  treatment  of  the  Turkish 
hajjis  did  not  remove  this  unfavorable  opinion. 
Similar  accounts  were  given  by  the  pashas  of  Bag- 
dad, who  had  seen  the  neighbouring  country  assailed 
almost  annually  by  these  invaders,  who  exacted  a 
capitation-tax  from  all  Persian  devotees  that  crossed 
the  desert. 

No  place  on  the  eastern  border  seemed  better 
adapted  than  Bagdad  for  pushing  the  war  into  the 
heart  of  the  enemy's  territory  ;  and,  in  1797,  Soly- 
man  Pasha  despatched  an  expedition  to  attack  De- 
raiah,  consisting  of  4000  or  5000  Turkish  troops, 
and  twice  that  number  of  allied  Arabs,  under  the 
-command  of  his  lieutenant-governor.  Instead  of 
advancing  directly  to  the  capital,  they  laid  siege  to 
the  fortified  citadel  of  Hassa,  which  resisted  their 


260  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

efforts  above  a  month,  until  the  arrival  of  a  strong 
force  under  Saoud,  the  son  of  Abdelazeez,  deter- 
mined them  to  retreat.  The  Wahabee  chief  antici- 
pated this  measure,  and  endeavoured  to  intercept 
their  return,  by  throwing  camel-loads  of  salt,  which 
he  had  brought  for  the  purpose,  into  the  wells  on 
their  line  of  march.  The  soldiers  of  Bagdad  were 
thus  compelled  to  halt ;  and  for  three  days  the  two 
armies  continued  within  sight  of  each  other,  but 
without  venturing  on  an  attack.  A  truce  for  six 
years  was  at  length  concluded,  and  both  parties 
quietly  dispersed  to  their  homes. 

The  failure  of  this  expedition  was  fatal  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Turks,  as  the  Wahabees  had  now  learned 
to  despise  them.  The  peace  was  soon  broken ;  and, 
in  1801,  Saoud  at  the  head  of  20,000  men  attacked 
Kerbela,  so  famed  for  the  magnificent  tomb  or 
mosque  of  Hossein,  which  had  long  attracted  the 
devotion  of  the  Moslem.  The  town  was  entered, 
after  a  very  slight  resistance,  by  means  of  palm- 
trunks  placed  against  the  wall,  and  five  thousand 
persons  were  massacred.  While  executing  this 
horrible  butchery,  a  fanatical  doctor  cried  from  the 
top  of  a  tower,  "  Kill,  strangle  all  infidels  who  give 
companions  to  God!"  In  their  fury  they  spared 
none  but  old  men,  women,  and  children.  Their 
indignation  was  specially  directed  against  the  sepul- 
chre, which  was  filled  with  the  riches  of  Turkey  and 
Persia.  The  cupola,  with  its  golden  ornaments,  was 
thrown  down ;  and  in  this  act  the  spoilers  were 
heard  to  exclaim,  "  God  have  mercy  upon  those  who 
destroyed,  and  none  upon  those  who  built  them !" 
Treasures  were  found  to  a  vast  amount,  which  had 
accumulated  in  proportion  to  the  excessive  venera- 
tion of  the  pilgrims.  Over  the  tomb  was  suspended 
a  huge  pearl ;  near  it  were  deposited  twenty  sabres 
mounted  with  precious  stones  ;  these,  together  with 
vases,  lamps,  rubies,  emeralds,  diamonds,  and  ar- 
ticles of  gold  and  silver,  became  the  property  of 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  261 

Saoiid.  The  houses  were  stript  of  their  valuable 
furniture  ;  4000  Cashmere  shawls,  2000  swords,  and 
as  many  muskets,  were  piled  in  one  heap  for  dis- 
tribution when  the  troops  evacuated  the  place, 
which  in  five  days  they  had  reduced  to  a  mass  of 
smoking  ruins. 

While  the  Wahabees  were  occupied  on  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates,  Ghaleb  penetrated  into  Nejed  and 
took  possession  of  Shara,  a  small  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Kasym.  In  his  campaigns  he  had  hitherto 
been  alternately  victor  and  vanquished;  but  Ab- 
delazeez,  extending  his  \'iews  with  his  conquests, 
now  began  to  invade  Hejaz  with  more  zeal  and 
perseverance  than  he  had  ever  before  manifested. 
Already  Saoud  had  carried  the  arms  and  the  faith 
of  his  father  among  the  mountain-tribes  on  the 
confines  of  Yemen,  where  Abu  Nocta,  the  sheik  of 
Azir,  was  left  in  charge  of  the  new  proselytes.  The 
tribes  eastward  of  INIecca  were  obliged  to  yield ;  and 
the  country  was  intrusted  to  the  command  of  0th- 
man  el  Medaife,  brother-in-law  to  Ghaleb,  but  who 
had  for  some  years  been  at  enmity  with  his  kinsman. 
In  1802,  he  besieged  Taif,  which  was  taken  after  a 
vigorous  resistance,  and  condemned  to  share  the 
fate  of  Kerbela  ; — with  this  difference,  that  the  sol- 
diers had  orders  to  spare  neither  old  age  nor  infancy. 
Eight  hundred  males  were  put  to  the  sword  ;  but  the 
harems  were  respected.  Many  houses  were  burnt, 
and  the  whole  were  plundered.  All  the  holy  tombs 
were  destroyed  ;  among  others  that  of  Al  Abbas,  the 
uncle  of  Mohammed,  celebrated  throughout  Arabia 
for  its  beauty  and  its  sanctity.  The  palace  and  fine 
gardens  of  the  sheriff  were  desolated ;  but  his  trea- 
sures had  been  carried  to  Mecca.  These  successes 
emboldened  the  Waliabees,  and  for  the  first  time 
they  interdicted  the  pilgrim-caravans. 

In  the  following  year,  they  effected  the  total  coii- 
quest  of  Hejaz.  Saoud  and  Othman,  after  several 
battles  with  Ghaleb.  approached  ^Mecca,  and  pitched 


262  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

their  camp  within  an  hour  and  a  half's  distance  of 
the  city.  The  eastern  suburb  was  attacked  and 
taken  possession  of,  and  from  that  point  frequent 
saUies  were  made  into  the  town.  The  governor, 
undismayed,  defended  himself  with  great  bravery. 
He  laid  a  mine  near  his  palace,  which  obliged  the 
assailants  to  make  a  temporary  retreat.  But  the 
supply  of  water  was  cut  off  by  diverting  the  caneJ 
of  Arafat ;  and  the  inhabitants,  after  a  siege  of  two 
or  three  months,  were  reduced  to  extreme  necessity 
for  want  of  provisions.  Dogs  and  cats  were  eagerly 
devoured ;  the  only  stores  were  at  the  disposal  of 
the  sheriff  and  his  warriors  ;  and  when  these  were 
consumed  he  retired  towards  Jidda,  carrying  off  the 
whole  of  his  family  and  baggage,  having  previously 
set  fire  to  his  palace  to  destroy  such  furniture  as 
was  not  easily  portable.  The  city  was  now  aban- 
doned to  its  fate.  On  the  next  morning,  the  chief 
inhabitants  went  out  to  capitulate,  or  rather  to  sur- 
render at  discretion  ;  and  on  the  same  day  (April  27) 
Saoud  made  his  entrance.  Not  the  slightest  excess 
was  committed ;  and  the  Meccawees  still  remember 
with  gratitude  the  excellent  discipline  observed  by 
the  wild  Bedouin  soldiers.  All  the  shops  were 
immediately  opened  by  order  of  the  victorious  chief, 
and  every  article  which  his  troops  required  was 
purchased  with  ready  money.  This  forbearance 
was  doubtless  the  effect  of  policy ;  but  the  artful 
conqueror  ascribed  it  to  a  miracle.  He  told  the 
ulemas,  in  full  council,  that  he  had  seen  Mohammed 
in  a  dream,  who  threatened  him  that  he  should  not 
survive  three  days  if  a  single  grain  of  corn  were 
forcibly  taken  from  the  holy  city.  But  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  Prophet  did  not  extend  to  those 
objects  of  idolatry  which  offended  the  religious 
prejudices  of  the  Wahabees.  Above  eighty  splendid 
tombs,  which  covered  the  remains  of  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Apostle,  and  formed  the  great  ornaments 
of  Mecca,  were  levelled  with  the  ground ;  nor  was 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  263 

the  monument  of  the  favourite  and  venerable  Kadi- 
jah  saved.  The  coffee-houses,  or  rather  shops  for 
spirituous  hquors,  next  felt  the  desolating  zeal  of  the 
reformers.  Piles  of  hookahs  and  Persian  pipes 
were  collected  from  these  haunts  and  burnt  in  the 
presence  of  Saoud.  The  use  of  brandy  and  tobacco 
were  prohibited  under  severe  penalties ;  and  the 
inhabitants  were  obliged  to  conform,  outwardly  at 
least,  to  the  new  creed,  by  abandoning  their  lux- 
uries and  rich  dresses,  and  being  more  punctual  in 
their  devotions.  Prayers  for  the  sultan  in  the  grand 
mosque  were  ordered  to  be  abolished  ;  the  govern- 
ment was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Abdel  Main,  the 
brother  of  Ghaleb  ;  and  in  the  following  epistle  this 
memorable  conquest  was  communicated  to  the  Otto- 
man Porte : — 

"  Saoud  to  Selim. — I  entered  Mecca  on  the  4th 
day  of  Moharram,  in  the  1218th  year  of  the  Hejira. 
I  kept  peace  towards  the  inhabitants.  I  destroyed 
all  the  tombs  that  were  idolatrously  worshipped. 
I  abolished  the  levying  of  all  customs  above  two  and 
a  half  per  cent.  I  confirmed  the  cadi  whom  you 
had  appointed  to  govern  in  the  place,  agreeably  to 
the  commands  of  Mohammed.  1  desire,  that  in  the 
ensuing  years  you  will  give  orders  to  the  pashas  of 
Sham  (Damascus)  and  Mesr  (Cairo)  not  to  come 
accompanied  with  the  mahmal,  trumpets,  and  drums, 
into  Mecca  and  Medina.  For  why  ]  Religion  is  not 
profited  by  these  things.  Peace  be  between  us : 
and  may  the  blessing  of  God  be  unto  you  ! — Dated 
on  the  10th  day  of  Moharram."     (May  3,  1803.) 

From  Mecca  the  reformer  turned  his  arms  against 
Jidda;  but  the  interval  had  allowed  Ghaleb  time  to 
prepare  for  his  reception  by  mounting  the  walls 
with  cannon  from  the  vessels  in  the  harbour.  For 
eleven  days  the  town  was  besieged;  the  supplies 
of  water  were  cut  off,  in  consequence  of  whicTi 
numbers  perished  of  thirst.  But  the  inhabitants 
fought  bravely,  and  the  Wahabee  chief,  despairing 


231  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

of  victory,  \va,s  obliged  to  retreat ;  though  some 
allege  this  forbearance  was  purchased  with  a  bribe 
of  30,000  dollars  (6496/.  155.).  While  Saoud  directed 
his  march  towards  the  northern  desert,  the  other 
issued  from  his  stronghold,  and  resumed  the  govern- 
ment of  Mecca.  Knowing  that  he  could  not  defend 
the  place  for  any  length  of  time,  he  compromised 
matters  with  the  invader ;  and  in  consideration  of 
his  influence  and  high  station,  he  obtained  more 
favourable  terms  than  were  usually  granted  to  other 
proselyte  chiefs.  The  capture  of  this  city  was  the 
signal  for  other  advantages  in  Hejaz.  The  power- 
ful tribe  of  Harb  were  compelled  to  yield,  but  not 
without  a  severe  contest ;  and  their  submission  was 
followed  by  the  surrender  of  Yembo. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  1804,  Medina  was  added  to 
the  Wahabee  conquests.  The  inhabitants,  being 
more  attached  to  the  Turkish  interest  than  the 
Meccawees,  were  not  so  leniently  treated.  The 
usual  tribute  was  required,  but  private  property  was 
not  injured.  Saoud's  first  care  was  to  demolish  the 
tombs  and  strip  them  of  all  their  valuable  ornaments. 
During  the  siege,  a  considerable  part  of  the  treasures 
of  the  great  mosque,  more  especially  the  golden 
vessels,  had  been  seized  by  the  governor  of  the 
town,  Hassan  el  Khalaji,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose 
of  relieving  the  general  distress ;  but  they  were 
finally  distributed  among  his  own  friends.  The 
remainder  fell  a  prey  to  the  Wahabee  general,  who 
entered  the  sacred  hejra  himself,  and  penetrated 
behind  the  curtain  of  the  Prophet's  tomb,  where 
he  laid  his  sacrilegious  hands  on  every  thing  valu- 
able that  could  be  found.  Among  these  hoarded 
treasures  the  most  remarkable  is  said  to  have  been 
a  brilliant  star  set  in  diamonds  and  pearls,  which 
was  suspended  directly  over  the  coffin.  Around  it 
were  deposited  many  costly  vessels  set  with  jewels, 
earrings,  bracelets,  necklaces,  and  other  ornaments, 
sent  as  presents  from  all  parts  of  the  empire,  but 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  265 

principally  brought  by  the  great  hajjis  who  passed 
through  the  city.  Of  this  collection  he  sold  part  to 
the  sheriff  of  Mecca,  and  carried  the  remainder  with 
him  to  Deraiah,  which  is  said  to  have  consisted 
chiefly  of  pearls  and  corals.  The  total  value  of  the 
booty  was  estimated  at  more  than  300,000  dollars 
(64,687/.  105.) ;  though  there  is  good  reason  for  sup- 
posing that  the  donations  of  the  Faithful,  accumu- 
lated there  for  ages,  must  have  amounted  to  a  much 
greater  sum,  had  not  the  governors  of  the  town  or 
the  guardians  of  the  sepulchre  occasionally  relieved 
their  necessities  by  large  drafts  from  this  religious 
exchequer.  Allured  by  its  glittering  appearance, 
the  Wahabees  attempted  to  destroy  the  lofty  dome, 
and  throw  down  the  gilded  globe  and  crescent  which 
surmount  it ;  but  the  solid  structure  and  the  leaden 
covering  rendered  this  a  difficult  undertaking ;  and 
as  two  of  the  workmen  slipped  from  the  roof  and 
were  precipitated  to  the  ground,  the  work  of  de- 
struction was  abandoned  ; — a  circumstance  ascribed 
to  a  visible  miracle  wrought  by  the  Prophet  in  favour 
of  his  monument.  The  tomb  itself  was  left  un- 
injured ;  but  Saoud  prohibited  as  idolatrous  all  visits, 
prayers,  or  adorations  addressed  to  it ;  no  other  mark 
of  devotion  being  allowed  but  the  regular  pilgrimage. 
Here,  as  at  Mecca,  the  due  observance  of  prayer,  and 
the  negation  of  silk  and  tobacco,  were  imposed  with 
great  strictness.  At  the  appointed  hours  a  body  of 
Arabs,  armed  with  large  sticks,  had  orders  to  patrol 
the  streets  and  drive  the  inhabitants  to  the  common 
place  of  worship.  The  names  of  all  the  adult  males 
were  called  over  in  the  mosque  after  morning,  noon- 
day, and  evening  prayers,  and  such  as  did  not  answer 
to  the  roll  were  punished.  A.  respectable  woman, 
accused  of  having  smoked  a  hookah,  was  paraded 
through  the  streets  on  a  jackass,  with  the  pipe  sus- 
pended from  her  neck,  round  which  was  twisted  the 
long  flexible  tube. 
Between  the  capture  of  Mecca  and  that  of  Me- 

VOL.  II.— Z 


266  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

dina  happened  the  death  of  Abdelazeez,  who  was 
assassinated,  in  October,  1803,  by  a  Persian  whose 
relations  the  Wahabees  had  murdered.  His  eldest 
son  Saoiid  was  unanimously  elected  his  successor; 
and  in  the  necessary  quahties  of  a  religious  leader 
he  far  surpassed  his  father.  He  had  been  trained 
to  war  from  his  youth,  having  carried  arms  in  battle 
when  only  at  the  age  of  twelve.  For  many  years 
he  had  conducted  all  the  wars;  and  to  him  may  be 
ascribed  the  conquest  of  Hejaz.  From  the  time, 
however,  that  his  reign  began,  it  was  remarked  that 
he  never  fought  personally  in  any  engagement,  but 
always  directed  his  army  from  a  position  at  some 
distance  in  the  rear.  In  person,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  remarkably  handsome ;  he  had  a  fine  coun- 
tenance, and  wore  a  longer  beard  than  is  generally 
seen  among  the  Bedouins  ; — a  peculiarity  which  ob- 
tained him  the  name  of  Ahu  Shouareb,  or  Father  of 
Mustachios.  All  the  Arabs,  even  his  enemies, 
praised  him  for  his  wisdom  and  moderation,  his 
love  of  justice  and  skill  in  deciding  litigations. 

For  several  years  after  his  father's  death  he  wore 
a  coat-of-mail  under  his  shirt,  and  never  went  abroad 
except  v^ith  a  chosen  guard  around  him.  His  do- 
minions he  divided  into  several  districts  or  provinces, 
over  which  he  placed  the  great  Bedouin  sheiks,  with 
the  honorary  title  of  emirs  ;  whose  principal  duty  it 
was  to  execute  public  justice,  to  assist  the  tax- 
gatherers,  and  recruit  troops  for  the  army.  The 
vigilant  and  rigid  policy  which  they  were  compelled 
to  maintain  tended  to  secure  the  country  against 
robbers,  and  to  check  the  sanguinary  feuds  of  hos- 
tile parties ;  but  the  new  system  was  not  popular, 
and  the  frequent  revolts  of  the  Bedouins  proved  how 
impatient  they  were  of  restraints  so  directly  opposed 
to  their  habits  of  wild  and  lawless  independence. 
The  several  tribes  were  made  responsible  for 
every  depredation  committed  within  their  terri- 
tory, should  the  perpetrator  be  unknown;  and  if 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  267 

they  had  neglected  to  repel  or  resist  the  aggression, 
they  were  amerced  in  a  fine  equivalent  to  the 
amount  of  the  cattle  or  other  property  that  had  been 
carried  off. 

The  revenues  of  the  Wahabees  had  been  estab- 
lished on  a  plan  similar  to  that  prescribed  by  iMo- 
hammed.  On  fields  v^^atered  solely  by  rain  Saoud 
levied  a  tithe  of  the  crops  ;  but  he  was  content  with 
only  a  twentieth  part  from  grounds  where  the  labour 
and  expense  of  artificial  irrigation  were  necessary. 
Merchants  paid  yearly  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  on 
their  capital,  though  they  seldom  returned  an  ac- 
count of  more  than  one-fourth  of  their  property. 
The  most  considerable  portion  of  his  revenue  was 
drawn  from  his  own  domains.  As  he  made  it  a  rule, 
whenever  any  of  the  conquered  cities  or  districts 
rebelled,  to  plunder  them  for  the  first  offence,  and 
confiscate  for  the  second,  most  of  the  landed  pro- 
perty in  Nejed  had  accrued  to  the  public  treasury 
(Beit  el  Mai),  and  was  let  out  to  farmers,  who  were 
obliged  to  pay  a  third,  or  a  half,  of  the  produce, 
according  to  circumstances.  Many  villages  of  He- 
jaz,  the  pastures  near  the  Syrian  Desert,  and  the 
mountains  towards  Yemen,  were  thus  attached  to 
the  exchequer  at  Deraiah.  The  sheiks  were  not 
allowed  any  concern  in  the  taxes ;  Imt  they  met  the 
collectors  at  the  spots  appointed  for  payment,  which 
were  generally  watering-places,  where  the  people 
were  directed  to  repair. 

The  income  of  Saoud  was  much  more  than  sufR- 
cient  to  defray  the  public  expenditure,  though  it  was 
by  no  means  so  great  as  was  generally  reported. 
The  largest  amount,  according  to  Burckhardt's  in- 
formation, in  one  year  was  2,000,000  of  dollars 
(431,250/.)  ;  but  on  an  average  it  did  not  exceed 
1,000,000  annually.  The  outlay  for  military  pur- 
poses must  have  been  trifling,  as  there  was  no'stand- 
ing  army  and  no  regular  pay.  The  costliest  part  of 
the  establishment  were  his  guests  and  his  horses. 


268  HISTORY  OF  the  wahabees. 

Of  the  latter  he  had  no  fewer  than  2000  as  his  own 
property;  for  some  of  which  he  gave  the  extravagant 
price  of  500/.  or  600/.  When  an  expedition  was  me- 
ditated against  the  enemy,  the  sheiks  levied  soldiers 
by  a  kind  of  conscription,  from  every  village,  camp, 
or  family,  under  their  control,  according  to  its  pop- 
ulation ;  and  the  corps  was  again  dissolved  as  soon 
as  the  campaign  was  over.  All  from  the  age  of 
eighteen  to  sixty,  whether  married  or  unmarried, 
were  required  to  attend.  On  pressing  emergencies 
no  numbers  were  mentioned ;  the  chief  merely  said, 
"  We  shall  not  count  those  who  join  the  army,  but 
those  who  stay  behind ;"  a  summons  which  was 
understood  to  include  every  man  capable  of  bearing 
arms. 

The  necessary  provisions  for  a  soldier  during  one 
campaign  were  reckoned  to  be  100  lbs.  of  flour,  50 
lbs.  or  60  lbs.  of  dates,  20  lbs.  of  butter,  a  water- 
skin,  and  a  sack  of  wheat  or  barley  for  the  camel. 

Stratagems  and  sudden  invasions  being  most  fa- 
vourable for  their  purpose,  no  other  mode  of  war- 
fare was  practised.  When  Saoud  planned  an  incur- 
sion, the  object  of  it  was  known  to  himself  alone. 
He  assembled  the  emirs  at  a  certain  point,  gener- 
ally a  watering-station,  which  was  always  selected 
so  as  to  deceive  the  enemy.  If  the  march  was  in- 
tended for  the  northward,  the  place  of  rendezvous 
was  appointed  several  days'  journey  to  the  south ; 
the  foe  was  then  taken  completely  by  surprise  ;  and 
such  were  the  caution  and  celerity  with  which  these 
attacks  were  executed,  that  they  seldom  failed  of 
success.  They  were  made  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  even  in  the  sacred  month  of  Ramadan.  The 
army  was  always  preceded  by  a  vanguard  of  30  or 
40  horsemen ;  and  if  they  were  obliged  to  advance 
under  night,  the  chief  and  all  the  principal  sheiks 
had  torches  carried  before  them.  In  coming  to 
close  action,  the  troops  were  divided  into  three  or 
four  squadrons,  one  behind  another  ;  the  first  com- 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  269 

posed  of  horsemen,  and  the  second  of  camel-riders, 
these  being  reckoned  the  main  strength  of  the  army. 
The  bravest  andmost  renowned  of  Saoiid's  warriors 
were  his  body-guard,  about  300  in  number,  who  were 
constantly  kept  as  a  corps  of  reserve.  They  usually 
fought  in'  complete  armour,  and  had  their  horses 
covered  with  a  quilted  woollen  stuff  called  lebs^ 
impenetrable  to  lances  or  swords.  To  all  who  fell 
in  battle  he  ensured  the  enjoyment  of  paradise  ; 
and  when  the  mare  of  a  slain  sheik  galloped  back  to 
the  ranks  with  an  empty  saddle,  it  was  hailed  as 
the  happy  tidings  that  a  true  believer  had  exchanged 
his  cotton  keffie  for  a  crown  of  martyrdom. 

At  the  time  of  his  accession  nearly  the  whole 
extent  of  Arabia  had  been  reduced  to  submission. 
It  was  seldom  thought  advisable  to  garrison  any 
district  that  he  had  subdued,  the  influence  of  the 
sheik  whom  he  placed  over  it,  and  the  terror  of 
his  own  name,  being  generally  sufficient  to  keep 
the  vanquished  in  subjection.  When  some  of  the 
more  powerful  tribes  relaxed  in  their  allegiance,  or 
became  irregular  in  the  payment  of  tribute,  three 
or  four  flying  expeditions  were  sent  against  them, 
which  soon  brought  them  back  to  obedience.  The 
dread  of  losing  their  crops  and  their  cattle  overcame 
the  scruples  of  the  most  refractory  ;  and  Saoud  was 
often  heard  to  say,  "  That  no  Arabs  had  ever  been 
stanch  Wahabees  until  they  had  suffered  two  or 
three  times  from  the  plundering  of  his  troops." 
Medina  was  the  only  instance  where  it  was  found 
necessary  to  keep  a  constant  military  force,  the  in- 
.  habitants  being  naturally  hostile  to  his  leligion  and 
his  government.  In  Mecca,  the  power  of  Ghaleb 
was  still  considerable,  and  at  Jidda  his  authority 
renmined  in  full  force ;  but  his  great  talents  for  in- 
trigue, his  venerable  office,  and  his  personal  influ- 
ence over  several  Bedouin  tribes,  induced  his  rival 
to  keep  on  amicable  terms  with  him. 

Since  the  conquest  of  Hejaz  most  of  the  regular 

Z  2 


270  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

pilgrim-caravans  had  ceased,  rather  than  submit  to 
the  conditions  which  the  reformers  exacted.     Only 
a  few   succeeded  in  making  their  way,  and  these 
were  chiefly  Moggrebins,  Abyssinians,  and  Indians, 
who  showed  more  humihty  than  the  other  Moslem. 
For  several  years  this  state  of  matters  continued ; 
but  the  pilgrimage,  so  far  from  being  abohshed,  as 
some  travellers  have  alleged,  might  have  continued 
without  interruption,  had  the  terms  and  safe-con- 
duct of  the  Wahabees  been  accepted.     Saoud  was 
punctual  in  his   annual  visits  to   Mecca,  and  was 
always  accompanied  with  numbers  of  his  followers, 
whose  enthusiasm,  as  described  by  an  eyewitness 
(Ali  Bey),  must  have  put  laxer  Mussulmans  to  the 
blush.     Columns  of  half-naked  men,  with  match- 
locks on  their  shoulders  and  khunjers  in  their  belts, 
pressed  towards  the  Temple  to  perform  the  towaf 
and  kiss  the  black  stone.     Impatient  of  delay,  they 
precipitated  themselves  upon   the   spot,   some  of 
them  opening  their  way  with  sticks  in  their  hands. 
Confusion  was  soon  at  its  height ;  and  in  the  tumult 
the    devotees   were  prevented    from   hearing   the 
voices  of  their  guides  or  the   commands  of  their 
chiefs. 

In  making  the  seven  circuits,  their  movements 
were  accelerated  by  mutual  impulse,  until  they  re- 
sembled a  swarm  of  bees  flitting  in  rapid  disorder 
round  the  Kaaba ;  and  bj?^  their  tumultuous  pressure 
breaking  all  the  lamps  near  it  with  the  muskets 
which  they  carried  on  their  shoulders.  These  cere- 
monies done,  they  rushed  to  the  Zemzem  Well,  but 
in  such  crowds,  and  with  such  precipitation,  that 
in  a  few  moments,  ropes,  buckets,  and  pulleys,  were 
laid  in  ruins.  The  servants  abandoned  their  posts  ; 
and  in  this  emergency  the  Wahabees  contrived  to 
obtain  the  miraculous  liquid,  by  forming  a  chain  of 
each*  other's  hands,  which  enabled  them  to  descend 
to  the  water.  Unfortunately  for  the  numerous  char- 
ities of  the  mosque  the  reformers  had  brought  no 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  271 

money  with  them.  The  well  required  alms,  and 
the  officers  of  the  Temple  expected  their  gratuities; 
and  these  pious  debts  the  Bedouins  discharged  by 
giving  them  twenty  or  thirty  grains  of  very  coarse 
gunpowder,  small  bits  of  lead,  or  a  few  grains  of 
coffee.  The  guides  that  repeated  their  prayers,  and 
the  barbers  who  shaved  their  heads,  were  paid  in 
the  same  coin.  On  these  occasions  Saoud,  perhaps 
dreading  the  fate  of  his  father,  always  kept  himself 
surrounded  with  his  chosen  guard,  even  while  mak- 
ing his  turns  round  the  Kaaba  ;  and,  instead  of  seat- 
ing himself  during  his  devotions  in  the  usual  place, 
he  mounted  on  the  roof  of  the  well,  as  being  a  more 
safe  position. 

While  Hejaz  thus  remained  tranquil,  the  Waha- 
bees  chiefly  directed  their  expeditions  against  their 
neighbours  in  the  east  and  the  north.  The  district 
about  Bussora  being  rich  in  cattle  and  dates,  the 
banks  of  the  Shat  el  Arab  and  of  the  Euphrates  up  to 
Anah,  were  the  scenes  of  their  annual  attacks.  A 
negro  slave  of  Saoud's,  called  Hark,  at  the  head  of  a 
strong  detachment,  made  various  incursions  into  the 
Syrian  Desert,  and  frightened  the  Arab  tribes  in  the 
vicinity  of  Aleppo.  In  1810,  the  plains  of  Houran 
were  invaded  by  the  commander  in  person ;  and  so 
rapid  and  unexpected  were  his  movements  that,  al- 
though it  required  more  than  a  month  to  arrive  at 
the  point  of  attack,  thirty- five  villages  were  sacked 
and  laid  in  ashes  by  his  soldiers  before  the  Pasha 
of  Damascus,  who  had  only  two  day's  notice  of  his 
approach,  could  make  any  demonstrations  of  defence. 
Towards  the  south  the  Wahabees  were  not  idle  in 
extending  the  influence  of  their  arms  over  some  of 
the  still  unconquered  provinces.  Abu  Nokta,  near 
the  close  of  1804,  descended  with  a  numerous  body 
of  Arabs  from  the  mountains,  and  spread  dismay 
over  the  country.  The  towns  of  Loheia  and  Hode- 
ida  were  plundered  ;  after  which  he  retired  to  the 
hills,  where  he  kept  the  whole  frontier  of  Yemen  in 


272  HISTORY   OF    THE     WAHABEtS. 

check  till  his  death  in  1809.  Sanaa,  however,  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  made  the  object  of  attack. 
Saoud  had  repeatedly  offered  the  plunder  of  that  rich 
city  to  Hamoud  and  Abu  Nokta,  by  way  of  attaching 
them  to  his  interest ;  but  he  never  actually  ordered 
either  of  them  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  it,  proba- 
bly from  a  wish  to  reserve  that  enterprise  for  him- 
self. The  extensive  districts  of  Hadramaut  and 
Oman  offered  a  tempting  booty,  and  were  harassed 
by  frequent  plundering  incursions.  The  sovereigns 
of  these  principalities  had  tendered  their  homage  to 
the  Wahabee  chief,  and  agreed  to  pay  an  annual 
tribute  ;  but  in  a  single  year  they  threw  off  their 
submission  to  him,  and  his  arms  were  then  too  much 
occupied  in  another  quarter  to  effect  their  reduction. 
The  isles  of  Bahrein  and  the  Joassamee  pirates  had 
embraced  the  new  doctrines,  and  carried  them  into 
profitable  operation  by  harassing  the  commerce  on 
the  Gulf;  but  the  power  of  Saoud  on  that  coast 
sustained  an  irreparable  loss  in  the  destruction  of 
Ras  el  Khyma,  by  the  English  expedition  from 
Bombay. 

Although  the  Wahabees  had  come  to  open  hostil- 
ities with  the  Turkish  government  since  they  had 
interrupted  the  haj-caravans,  and  forbidden  the  peo- 
ple to  pray  in  their  mosques  for  the  welfare  of  the 
sultan,  yet  the  Porte  had  hitherto  remained  almost 
inactive.  Yussuf,  pasha  of  Damascus,  in  1809,  made 
indeed  some  faint  preparations  for  attacking  the 
district  of  Jof.  But  this  was  merely  a  vain  demon- 
stration of  his  zeal,  as  the  expedition  never  took 
place.  The  immense  deserts  that  extended  between 
the  Syrian  and  Arabian  capitals  rendered  it  impos- 
sible to  transport  sufficient  provisions  and  ammuni- 
tion for  a  regular  campaign ;  and  made  it  obvious 
that,  if  ever  the  Turkish  influence  was  to  be  restored 
over  the  holy  cities,  the  effort  for  dispossessing  the 
Wahabees  must  proceed  from  Egypt,  on  which  the 
Hejazees  almost  exclusively  depended  for  the  com- 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  273 

mon  necessaries  of  life.  The  turbulent  state  of  that 
country,  and  the  insubordination  of  the  Manilouk 
beys,  for  some  time  prevented  Mohammed  Ali, 
who  had  been  appointed  pasha  by  the  Porte  in 
1804,  from  adopting  any  warlike  measures  against 
a  foreign  enemy.  IMuch  might  have  been  done, 
however,  towards  the  reduction  of  Hejaz,  by  merely 
shutting  the  ports  of  Suez  and  Cosseir  against  the 
Arabian  shipping  ;  but  the  viceroy,  notwithstanding 
the  firmans  from  Constantinople,  had  too  deep  an 
interest  hi  the  traffic  of  the  Red  Sea  to  sanction  a 
prohibitory  system,  which  would  have  cut  off  the 
gains  that  flowed  into  his  coffers  from  that  channel. 

Ambition  at  length  overruled  the  passion  of  ava- 
rice in  the  breast  of  Ali.  The  deliverance  of  the 
sepulchres  was  likely  to  add  a  celebrity  to  his  name 
that  would  exalt  him  far  above  all  the  pashas  in  the 
Turkish  empire.  To  stimulate  his  exertions  the 
sultan  promised  him  the  pashalic  of  Damascus  for 
one  of  his  sons  as  soon  as  he  should  obtain  posses- 
sion of  Mecca  and  Medina.  As  it  was  essential  to 
have  a  sufficient  flotilla  at  his  command  for  the  con- 
veyance of  troops  and  provisions,  he  caused  28  large 
and  small  vessels  (from  100  to  250  tons  burden)  to 
be  built  at  Suez,  which  kept  about  1000  workmen 
for  three  years  in  constant  employment. 

In  August,  1811,  this  armada  was  ready  for  depar- 
ture. Toussoun  Bey,  the  second  son  of  the  pasha,  a 
youth  of  eighteen,  who  had  given  proofs  of  extraor- 
dinary courage  in  the  Mamlouk  war,  was  placed  in 
command.  The  expedition  consisted  of  two  parts, 
cavalry  and  infantry;  the  former  amounting  to  a 
body  of  about  800  men,  Turks  and  Bedouins  ;  and 
the  latter,  composed  principally  of  Arnaout  soldiers, 
to  the  number  of  1500  or  2000,  under  the  direction 
of  Saleh  Aga  and  Omar  Aga.  In  October,  the  fleet 
reached  Yembo,  which  capitulated  after  a  feeble 
resistance  of  two  days.  The  town  was  not  gar- 
risoned by  Wahabees,  but  by  some  troops  belonging 


274  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

to  the  sheriff,  who  had  declared  himself  a  proselyte 
and  an  ally  of  Saoud. 

Several  months  were  consumed  in  negotiations ; 
for  Ghaleb,  when  he  heard  of  the  formidable  arma- 
ment of  Ali  Pasha,  had  thought  it  advisable  to  enter 
into  a  secret  correspondence  with  him,  in  which  he 
communicated  much  information  as  to  the  actual 
state  and  force  of  the  enemy ;  and  promised  to  throw 
off  his  allegiance  to  them  on  the  first  appearance  of 
a  respectable  Turkish  army  in  Hejaz.  Toussoun, 
however,  soon  discovered  that  the  state  of  the  coun- 
try was  by  no  means  such  as  he  had  expected  from 
the  representations  of  the  sheriff,  who  was  evidently 
not  smcere  in  his  offers  of  friendship,  and  only  wait- 
ing to  join  the  stronger  party.  The  inhabitants  were 
too  much  overawed  by  the  vigilance  and  power  of 
Saoud  to  stir  without  some  more  decided  prospect 
of  ultimate  success.  A  few  of  the  Bedouins  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Yembo  were  all  he  was  able  to 
detach  from  the  Wahabees. 

To  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  fruitless  inactivity, 
Toussoun  resolved  to  attack  Medina,  wisely  judging 
this  step  more  prudent  than  marching  towards  Jidda 
or  Mecca,  where  the  stratagems  of  the  sheriff  might 
have  been  as  fatal  to  him  as  the  arms  of  Saoud. 
Leaving  a  garrison  at  Yembo,  he  set  out  on  his  ex- 
pedition in  January,  1812.  The  towns  of  Bedr  and 
Safra  were  taken  after  a  slight  skirmish.  At  the 
village  of  Jedeida  the  road  leads  through  a  narrow 
passage  between  steep  and  rugged  mountains.  In 
this  defile,  which  extends  in  length  about  one  hour 
and  a  half,  the  Turkish  army  was  at  once  assailed 
by  the  united  force  of  the  Harbs  and  Wahabees,  who 
thickly  covered  the  precipices  on  both  sides,  to  the 
number  of  20,000  infantry,  and  from  600  to  800 
horsemen,  commanded  by  Abdallah  and  Faisal,  two 
of  the  sons  of  Saoud  Instead  of  retreating  to  the 
village,  where  they  might  have  defended  themselves, 
the  invaders,  on  the  first  cry  of  alarm,  took  to  flight ; 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  275 

while  their  nimble  enemies  pressing  from  behind, 
and  outrunning  them  along  the  hills,  poured  inces- 
sant volleys  upon  their  disordered  ranks.  About 
1200  were  killed ;  and  the  whole  body  might  have 
been  annihilated  had  the  Wahabees  instantly  pushed 
over  the  mountains,  instead  of  contenting  themselves 
with  seizing  the  baggage  and  artillery. 

Under  such  disastrous  circumstances  Toussoun 
did  not  forfeit  his  reputation  for  bravery.  With  tears 
gushing  from  his  eyes,  he  was  heard  to  exclaim  to 
his  flying  squadrons,  "  Will  none  of  you  stand  by 
me  ?"  and  after  vainly  endeavouring  to  rally  his 
troops,  he  hastened  to  the  rear  with  only  two  horse- 
men of  his  own  suite,  and  plunged  into  the  midst  of 
the  enemy,  to  make  them  desist  from  the  pursuit. 
Having  set  fire  to  his  camp  at  Bedr,  and  left  his  mili- 
tary chest,  which  he  had  not  the  means  to  remove, 
he  embarked  at  the  nearest  port,  where  some  of  his 
ships  lay  at  anchor,  and  proceeded  to  Yembo,  where 
in  a  few  days  he  was  joined  by  the  wreck  of  his 
army.  These  losses  completely  disheartened  the 
troops  ;  the  Bedouins  deserted,  Saleh  Aga  and  Omar 
Aga  declared  they  would  no  longer  fight  in  Hejaz, 
and  were  sent  back  to  Cairo.  The  Wahabees 
scoured  the  country  to  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea, 
being  joined  by  the  Sheriff  Ghaleb  in  person. 

When  the  intelligence  of  this  failure  was  known 
to  Ali  Pasha,  he  lost  no  time  in  preparing  for  a  new 
expedition.  Fresh  reinforcements  of  men  and  am- 
munition daily  arrived  ;  while  large  sums  of  money 
were  sent  for  distribution  among  the  Bedouin  sheiks ; 
by  which  means  a  considerable  number  of  them  were 
detached  from  the  interest  of  Saoud.  In  October, 
1812,  Toussoun  thought  himself  sufficiently  strong  to 
make  a  second  attempt  upon  Medina.  The  gold  of 
Egypt  had  opened  the  dangerous  pass  of  Jedeida , 
and  the  Turkish  army  arrived  without  opposition 
under  the  walls  of  the  city  of  the  Prophet.  The 
town  and  castle  were  occupied  by  a  Wahabee  gar- 


276  HISTORY   OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

rison,  well  supplied  with  provisions  for  a  long  siege; 
but  the  chief  and  his  soldiers  were  so  elated  with 
their  former  success,  and  so  confident  in  the  strength 
of  their  fortress,  that  they  seemed  to  have  abandoned 
themselves  to  a  state  of  the  most  culpable  inactivity. 
Ahmed  Aga,  an  officer  of  acknowledged  bravery, 
but  whose  idle  boasting  had  procured  him  the  sur- 
name of  Bonaparte,  entered  the  suburbs  with  little 
resistance,  and  drove  the  enemy  into  the  inner  town. 
As  the  Turks  had  nothing  but  light  field-pieces  to 
batter  the  wall,  the  siege  was  protracted  to  fourteen 
or  fifteen  days.     At  length  a  mine  was  laid,  and 
while  the  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  their  mid-day 
prayers  part  of  the  fortifications  was  blown  up,  and 
the  Arnaouts  marched  into  the  city.    The  Wahabees 
fled  in  surprise  towards  the  castle :  above  1000  of 
them  were  butchered  in  the  streets,  and  about  1500 
sought  refuge  in  the  citadel,  which,  from  its  situation, 
might  have  set  the  Egyptian  artillery  at  defiance. 
The  place  was  instantly  plundered  ;  and  after  stand- 
ing out  for  three  weeks,  the  garrison,  finding  their 
provisions  exhausted,  were  forced  to  capitulate, — 
Ahmed  Bonaparte  having  promised  to  grant  them  a 
safe  condact,  and  provide  camels  for  carrying  the 
baggage  of  such  as  wished  to  return  to  Nejed.  These 
stipulations,   however,   were   shamefully  violated. 
Only  fifty  camels  instead  of  300  were  procured, 
which  obliged  the  emigrants  to  leave  behind  them 
the  greater  part  of  their  effects  ;  and  no  sooner  had 
they  quitted  the  precincts  of  the  town,  than  the 
Turkish  soldiers  pursued,  stopped,  and  slaughtered 
as  many  of  them  as  they  could  overtake.     In  the 
true  style  of  Tartar  barbarity,  Ahmed  collected  the 
sculls  of  all  the  Wahabees  killed  at  Medina,  and 
constructed  them  into  a  kind  of  tower  on  the  high 
road  to  Yembo, 

Among  the  soldiers  in  the  pasha's  army  who 
signalized  their  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Medina  was 
a  young  Scotchmsui,  about  twenty  years  of  age,  a 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  277 

native  of  Edinburgh,  named  Thomas  Keith.  He 
had  served  as  a  gunsmith  in  the  92d  Highlanders, 
during  the  English  expedition  into  Egypt,  where  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  purchased  from  a  common 
soldier  by  Ahmed  Bonaparte,  in  whose  service  he 
changed  his  rehgion  and  became  a  Mussulman.  A 
favourite  Sicihan  Mamlouk  of  his  master  having 
offered  him  some  insult,  the  indignant  Scotchman 
drew  his  sword  ;  blows  ensued,  and  the  aggressor 
fell.  To  escape  the  consequences,  Keith,  who  now 
bore  the  name  of  Ibrahim  Aga,  implored  the  protec- 
tion of  Mohammed  Ali's  lady,  who  befriended  him, 
and  recommended  him  to  her  son,  Toussoun  Bey. 
Here  again,  on  account  of  some  trifling  neglect  of 
duty,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  master,  who 
gave  orders  that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  His 
room  was  beset  with  slaves,  ready  to  execute  the 
capricious  mandate  of  the  prince  ;  but  the  brave  fel- 
low defended  the  entrance  with  his  sword  for  half 
an  hour  against  the  assailants,  and  then  threw  him- 
self out  of  the  window,  and  escaped  to  his  kind  pro- 
tectress. Toussoun  was  soon  reconciled  ;  and  being 
sensible  of  Ibrahim's  merit  and  approved  courage,  he 
made  him  chief  of  his  Mamlouks.  Keith  was  one 
of  the  two  horsemen  that  stood  by  the  young  prince 
at  the  pass  of  Jedeida,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
promoted  to  the  office  of  treasurer, — the  second  in 
rank  at  the  court  of  a  pasha.  At  Medina  he  fought 
with  equal  courage,  being  the  first  man  that  mounted 
the  breach,  and  after  distinguishing  himself  on  several 
other  occasions,  he  was  made  governor  of  that  city 
in  April,  1815. 

The  success  of  the  expedition  in  northern  Hejaz 
encouraged  Ali  Pasha  to  despatch  another  of  1000 
horse  and  500  foot  against  Jidda  and  Mecca,  under 
the  command  of  his  brother-in-law  Mustapha  Bey. 
The  Sheriff  Ghaleb,  intimidated  by  the  fall  of  Me- 
dina, had  renewed  his  offers  to  the  Turks,  and  sent 
messengers  inviting  their  chief  to  enter  the  town 

Vol.  II.— a  a 


278  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

under  his  charge.  Thus  deserted  by  his  relation, 
Medaifa,  who  commanded  the  Wahabee  forces  in 
that  district,  found  himself  too  weak  to  hazard  a 
battle,  and  retired  towards  Taif.  Jidda  was  seized 
by  a  detachment  of  a  few  hundred  men,  while  Mus- 
tapha,  with  the  principal  corps,  entered  Mecca  in 
January,  1813.  The  property  of  the  citizens  was 
respected,  as  it  had  formerly  been  by  the  soldiers 
of  Saoud;  while  1000  Arabs  and  black  slaves,  with 
the  sheriff  at  their  head,  were  added  to  the  ranks 
of  the  Egyptian  army.  Taif  immediately  fell,  and 
its  brave  defender,  Medaifa,  was  soon  after  seized 
by  the  partisans  of  Ghaleb,  and  despatched  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  the  youngest  son  of  Mohammed 
Ali  presented  him  to  his  sovereign,  with  the  keys 
of  the  holy  cities,  together  with  many  valuable  offer- 
ings. The  noble  captive  was  immediately  beheaded ; 
and  thus  the  reformers  lost  their  most  active  and 
intrepid  ally  in  Hejaz. 

The  recovery  of  this  province  opened  a  free  pas- 
sage for  the  haj-caravans,  which  had  been  inter- 
rupted for  several  years  ;  but  it  had  not  broken  the 
power  of  the  Wahabees.  All  the  tribes  eastward  of 
the  mountains  that  bound  the  great  desert  parallel 
with  the  sea  still  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of 
Saoud.  The  Turks  never  encountered  them  in  the 
open  country  without  being  defeated ;  and  as  the 
conduct  of  Ghaleb  was  by  no  means  such  as  to  in- 
spire his  new  allies  with  confidence,  Mohammed  Ali 
thought  it  necessary  to  visit  in  person  the  scene  of 
action,  that  he  might  establish  his  authority  on  a 
more  secure  and  permanent  footing.  Egypt  had 
long  been  in  a  state  of  complete  subjection  ;  so  that 
he  could  allege  no  excuse  to  the  Porte  for  disobe- 
dience to  its  peremptory  commands.  He  embarked 
at  Suez  with  2000  infantry,  while  an  equal  number 
of  cavalry,  accompanied  by  a  train  of  8000  camels, 
proceeded  by  land.  Of  the  latter  only  five  hundred 
survived,  the  rest  having  perished  on  the  road, 


I 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  279 

owing  to  the  scarcity  of  herbage.  On  his  arrival 
at  Mecca  ]ie  ingratiated  himself  with  the  inhabit- 
ants, by  distributing  presents,  and  ordering  the 
mosques  to  be  repaired.  His  first  interviews  with 
Ghaleb  were  on  friendly  terms,  but  he  soon  became 
cool  in  his  demojistrations  of  amity.  Although  both 
had  sworn  on  the  Koran  never  to  attempt  any  thing 
contrary  to  the  interest,  safety,  or  life  of  each  other, 
these  vows  were  not  considered  binding  longer  than 
it  was  convenient  to  keep  them.  Both  were  equally 
suspicious,  and  accused  each  other  of  insidious 
machinations.  It  now  became  the  principal  object 
of  the  Egyptian  pasha  to  arrest  and  imprison  his 
rival; — an  enterprise  of  no  small  difficulty,  con- 
sidering the  sheriff's  influence  over  the  neighbour- 
ing Arabs,  and  the  strength  of  the  castle  where  he 
resided,  which  was  well  supplied  with  provisions, 
and  defended  by  a  garrison  of  800  men.  This  feat 
was  at  length  accomplished  by  a  stratagem  ;  Ghaleb 
was  seized,  while  paying  a  visit  of  ceremony  to 
Toussoun,  by  a  detachment  of  soldiers,  who  lay  con- 
cealed in  the  apartments  adjoining  the  court-yard  of 
the  house  which  he  had  just  entered.  After  a  short 
captivity  at  Mecca,  he  was  conveyed  by  way  of  Cos- 
seir  to  Cairo,  where  he  was  joined  by  his  wives  and 
a  retinue  of  eunuchs  and  slaves  ;  but  he  died  of  the 
plague  in  the  summer  of  1816  at  Salonica,  the  place 
which  the  Porte  had  assigned  for  his  residence. 
The  fate  of  this  chief  spread  terror  among  all  his 
partisans,  and  caused  a  revolution  in  the  whole 
political  affairs  of  the  country.  Yahia,  a  distant 
relation  of  his,  and  formerly  an  antagonist,  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  city,  with  a  monthly  stipend 
from  the  pasha. 

Among  the  hostile  tribes  near  Mecca,  none  had 
displayed  a  more  resolute  opposition  than  the  Be- 
goum  Arabs  who  inhabited  Taraba,  where  most  of 
Ghaleb's  troops  had  taken  refuge  ;  and  which  thus 
became  a  point  of  union  for  all  the  southern  Waha- 


280  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

bees,  as  Deraiah  was  of  the  northern.  Their  leader 
at  this  time  was  a  widow,  named  Ghalia,  whose  hus- 
band had  been  one  of  the  principal  men  of  the  place. 
She  was  possessed  of  great  wealth,  which  was  dis- 
tributed liberally  among  all  the  poor  of  the  tribe  who 
were  willing  to  fight  against  the  Turks.  The  Egyp- 
tian soldiers  entertained  the  most  absurd  notion  of 
her  powers  as  a  sorceress,  and  believed  that  she  had 
the  faculty,  by  means  of  certain  personal  favours, 
of  rendering  the  Wahabee  chiefs  invincible. 

In  the  beginning  of  November,  1813,  Toussoun 
was  despatched  from  Taif  with  2000  men,  and  on 
his  reaching  Taraba  the  troops  were  immediately 
ordered  to  attack  the  place.  The  Arabs  defended, 
their  walls  with  great  spirit,  being  animated  by  the 
presence  and  exhortations  of  the  heroic  widow. 
The  assailants  were  easily  repulsed ;  and  next  day 
they  commenced  their  retreat,  closely  pressed  by 
the  Bedouins,  who  harassed  them  so  severely  that 
they  were-  obliged  to  abandon  their  baggage,  tents, 
arms,  and  provisions.  Upwards  of  700  men  were 
slaughtered  in  the  flight ;  many  more  died  of  hunger 
and  thirst ;  and  the  whole  must  have  been  annihi- 
lated but  for  the  intrepidity  of  the  celebrated  Thomas 
Keith,  who  with  a  handful  of  horsemen  retook  a 
piece  of  artillery,  which  he  pointed  so  well  that  he 
gave  the  fugitives  time  to  cross  the  defile  before  the 
enemy  could  advance.  After  a  variety  of  hardships 
and  hairbreadth  escapes,  Toussoun  arrived  at  Taif 
with  the  wreck  of  his  army ;  and  for  eighteen 
months  all  hostile  operations  in  the  field  were  sus- 
pended. 

As  Alihad  seen  every  expedition  into  the  interior 
fail,  except  that  against  Medina,  a  naval  armament,  ac- 
companied by  1500  soldiers  and  numerous  transports 
with  provisions,  under  the  command  of  Hossein  Aga 
and  Zaim  Oglu,  was  fitted  out  at  Jidda,  and  directed 
to  make  an  attack  on  Confode,  which  for  five  years 
had  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Sheik  Tami,  chief 


HISTORY   OF    THE    WAHABEES.  281 

of  the  Azir  Arabs  and  successor  of  Abu  Nockta 
The  town,  which  was  without  a  natural  supply  of 
water,  and  defended  only  by  a  small  garrison,  was 
taken  in  March,  1814 ;  not,  however,  without  a  brave 
defence  and  a  great  expense  of  blood.  The  walls 
and  bastions  being  composed  of  earth  or  unbaked 
bricks,  yielded  to  the  cannon-balls,  which  sunk  into 
them  without  destroying  them.  From  the  small- 
ness  of  the  space,  and  the  close  contact  of  the  par- 
ties, the  scene  of  carnage  within  became  dreadful 
in  the  extreme.  Not  only  the  swords  and  knives, 
but  even  the  teeth  and  nails  of  the  combatants  were 
made  use  of  in  their  fury ;  several  of  the  besiegers 
were  killed,  or  rather  torn  to  pieces,  in  this  horrid 
encounter ;  while  not  one  who  had  been  engaged  on 
the  other  side  was  left  alive.  The  brutal  Zaim,  ex- 
asperated at  their  obstinacy,  published  a  reward  of 
200  piastres  (3/.  6^.  8d.)  for  every  Arab  head,  or  pair 
of  ears,  that  should  be  brought  to  him  by  his  troops. 
The  Arnaout  soldiers,  naturally  greedy,  dispersed 
themselves  in  every  direction  to  reap  their  bloody 
harvest,  dragging  their  wretched  victims  from  their 
lurking-holes,  some  of  whom  consented  to  save  their 
lives  at  the  expense  of  mutilation.  The  Turks,  hav- 
ing got  possession  of  the  place,  were  ordered  to 
maintain  it  as  a  military  post.  But  their  triumph 
was  short.  Early  in  May  they  were  surprised  by 
the  descent  of  a  corps  of  8000  or  10,000  Wahabees, 
under  the  personal  command  of  Tami.  Their  ap- 
pearance spread  general  consternation ;  the  Arnaout 
guard  at  the  well  were  cut  to  pieces ;  and  the  panic- 
struck  commander,  with  most  of  the  troops,  fled  to 
the  ships  that  lay  in  the  harbour.  The  invaders  en- 
tered the  town,  where  they  put  all  that  could  be 
found  to  the  sword  ;  and  such  was  their  eagerness 
in  pursuit,  that  they  swam  after  the  fugitives,  and 
actually  killed  numbers  of  them  in  the  water  under 
the  guns  of  the  vessels. 
These  repeated  disasters  greatly  displeased,  but 

Aa2 


282  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

they  did  not  discourage  Ali  Pasha,  who  had  now 
estabUshed  his  head-quarters  at  Taif.  Zaim  Oglu 
was  appointed  governor  of  Jidda;  and  Toussoun, 
who  by  his  inconsiderate  attack  on  Taraba  had  in- 
curred his  father's  displeasure,  remained  stationed 
at  Mecca.  At  this  time  the  state  of  Turkish  affairs 
in  Hejaz  did  not  by  any  means  promise  a  favourable 
issue  to  the  contest.  The  certain  death  that  awaited 
all  prisoners  rendered  the  very  name  of  Wahabee  a 
terror  among  the  pasha's  troops.  The  arrears  of  pay 
for  two  or  three  months,  and  the  extreme  dearth  of 
provisions,  which  had  risen  to  such  a  height  that  a 
soldier  could  barely  afford  to  purchase  a  subsistence 
of  bread  and  onions  (his  only  food),  spread  consider- 
able discontent  in  the  army. 

Under  these  circumstances,  Ali  was  perhaps  the 
only  individual  of  his  own  court  or  army  that  did 
not  despair  of  ultimate  success.  Relying  on  the 
powerful  auxiliaries  of  money  and  patience,  he  had, 
since  his  residence  at  Taif,  endeavoured  to  reopen 
a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Bedouins ;  and  in 
this  he  partially  succeeded.  The  profusion  with 
which  he  scattered  dollars  around  him  was  felt  in 
the  heart  of  the  Wahabee  host ;  and  although  the 
attachment  thus  procured  was  perhaps  not  very  sin- 
cere, yet  numbers  affected  to  be  so,  and  at  least  re- 
mained neuter,  that  they  might  partake  of  his  bounty. 
His  policy  towards  the  inhabitants  of  Hejaz  was 
equally  conciliatory.  He  abolished  or  diminished 
the  customs  on  various  articles,  particularly  coffee  ; 
he  gave  liberal  donations  to  the  holy  places ;  and 
even  performed  at  the  Kaaba  the  tedious  and  absurd 
ceremonies  of  the  Moslem  ritual. 

At  this  important  crisis  an  irreparable  misfortune 
befell  the  Wahabees  in  the  death  of  Saoud,  who  ex- 
pired of  a  fever  at  Deraiah  in  April,  1814,  at  the  age 
of  sixty-eight.  In  him  they  lost  an  indefatigable 
leader,  possessing  all  the  talents  necessary  for  the 
eminent  situation  which  he  held.    Victory  never 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  283 

abandoned  his  colours  while  he  was  at  the  head  of 
his  troops  ;  and  to  his  loss  may  be  attributed  the  dis- 
asters which  soon  after  befell  his  nation.  His  last 
words,  it  is  said,  were  addressed  to  his  eldest  son 
and  successor,  Abdallah,  advising  him  never  to  en- 
gage the  Turks  in  open  plains — a  principle  which, 
if  strictly  followed,  would  have  ensured  in  all  proba- 
bility the  recovery  of  Hejaz. 

Abdallah  had  been  trained  to  arms  from  infancy; 
and  it  is  recorded  of  him,  that  at  the  early  age  of 
five  years  he  could  gallop  his  mare.  He  was  even 
more  distinguished  for  courage  than  his  father,  as 
he  made  it  a  constant  rule  to  fight  everywhere  in 
person.  His  mental  qualities  were  considered  to 
be  of  the  first  order — and  so  long  as  Saoud  filled  the 
throne,  he  occupied  the  second  place  in  his  domin- 
ions ;  none  of  his  other  brothers  being  allowed  to 
exercise  any  influence  in  public  affairs.  With  all 
his  superior  reputation  for  bravery  and  skill  in  war, 
however,  he  knew  not  so  well  as  his  predecessor 
how  to  manage  the  political  interests  of  the  tribes 
under  his  command,  whose  general  strength  was 
now  weakened  by  the  quarrels  of  the  great  sheiks  ; 
while  the  measures  which  he  adopted  in  oppos- 
ing Mohammed  Ali  seemed  to  prove  that  he  by  no 
means  possessed  the  wisdom  and  sagacity  of  his 
■father. 

The  prospects  of  the  Turks  began  to  assume  a 
brighter  aspect.  Their  army  had  been  strengthened 
by  various  reinforcements :  20,000  men  were  now 
at  the  command  of  the  viceroy,  and  distributed  over 
different  parts  of  the  country.  At  Mecca  350  were 
stationed  under  Ibrahim  Agaand  the  Sheriff  Yahia  ; 
between  300  and  400  were  at  Medina,  where  Divan 
Effendi  had  the  command ;  300  formed  the  garrison 
of  Yembo  and  Jidda.  The  remainder  were  either 
with  Ali  himself,  or  with  Hassan  Pasha  and  his 
brother  Abdin  Bey,  acting  as  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  army  to  the  southward  of  Taif.     Four  hundred 


234  HISTORY    OF   THE    WAHABEES. 

Bedouin  soldiers  were  placed  under  the  charge  of 
Sheriff  Rajah,  a  relation  of  Ghaleb,  and  a  distin- 
guished leader  of  the  Wahabees  in  Hejaz,  who  had 
been  won  over  to  the  side  of  the  enemy. 

One  obstacle  alone  retarded  the  immediate  adop- 
tion of  offensive  measures.  The  campaign  had 
proved  most  destructive  to  the  Egyptian  camels: 
hundreds  of  their  dead  bodies  strewed  the  roads  be- 
tween Jidda  and  Taif,  and  occasioned  such  a  pesti- 
lential stench  that  the  inhabitants  were  obliged  to 
consume  them  to  ashes  with  dry  grass  from  the 
adjoining  mountains.  At  a  moderate  calculation, 
during  the  three  years  of  the  war,  30,000  of  these 
animals  belonging  to  the  army  had  perished  in  Hejaz. 
The  arrival  of  the  pilgrim-caravans  in  November 
brought  a  reinforcement  of  6000  or  7000,  chiefly  of 
the  Syrian  breed,  which  were  better  adapted  than 
the  others  for  military  purposes. 

While  these  measures  were  in  preparation,  the 
Wahabees  had  made  frequent  incursions  towards 
Taif,  and  against  the  tribes  which  had  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  pasha.  To  intercept  the  communica- 
tion between  Jidda  and  Mecca,  they  attacked  the 
camp  at  Bahra,  which  they  pillaged  of  its  baggage, 
carrying  off  a  small  caravan,  and  massacring  all  the 
inhabitants  they  could  find.  The  pride  of  the  Turks 
was  still  farther  humbled  by  another  defeat.  Abdin 
Bey,  with  his  Arnaouts,  who  occupied  certain  dis- 
tricts in  the  province  of  Tehama,  had  laid  desolate 
the  country  to  the  extent  of  forty  miles,  that  by 
means  of  this  artificial  desert  he  might  prevent  the 
sudden  incursions  of  the  enemy.  Notwithstanding 
these  cruel  precautions,  the  Sheik  Bakrouj,  at  the 
head  of  his  Arabs  and  a  strong  detachment  from 
Tami,  stole  by  surprise  into  the  Turkish  camp  at 
Barush  about  daybreak,  and  fell  upon  the  sleeping 
soldiers,  of  whom  they  slaughtered  800,  besides  80 
horsemen.  Bakrouj  pursued  the  fugitives  during 
two  days ;  and  not  an  individual  would  have  es- 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  285 

caped  destruction  had  not  Hossein  Bey,  with  a 
troop  of  cavalry,  covered  their  retreat.  Such  of 
them  as  fell  alive  into  the  hands  of  the  pursuers 
were  cruelly  mutilated,  by  having  their  arms  and 
legs  cut  oft;  and  then  left  to  perish  in  that  horrid 
condition. 

The  whole  effective  strength  of  the  Egyptian 
army,  reinforced  by  800  horsemen  of  Libyan  Bedou- 
ins from  Cairo,  was  now  collected  near  Taif ;  and 
from  the  state  of  his  storehouses  and  the  number 
of  his  camps,  Mohammed  Ali  considered  his  success 
no  longer  doubtful.  He  resolved  to  place  himself  at 
their  head,  and  to  take  command  in  person  of  the 
next  expedition,  which  was  directed  against  Taraba, 
in  revenge  for  the  disgrace  and  losses  that  had  been 
sustained  there  by  his  favourite  son.  A  well-ap- 
pointed artillery,  consisting  of  twelve  fieldpieces — 
500  axes  for  cutting  down  the  palm-groves  near  the 
town — a  company  of  masons  and  carpenters  for  the 
purpose  of  opening  a  mine  to  blow  it  up  at  once — 
encouraged  the  soldiers  to  believe  that  the  walls  of 
Taraba  could  not  long  remain  standing.  To  crown 
the  work  of  desolation,  a  load  of  watermelon  seeds 
was  brought  from  Wady  Fatima,  and  paraded  through 
the  ranks,  indicating  his  intention  of  sowing  them 
on  the  spot  which  the  devoted  place  still  occupied. 
The  Wahabees  were  nothing  daunted  at  these  pomp- 
ous demonstrations.  Confident  in  the  strength  of  his 
position,  Bakrouj  wrote  a  sneering  epistle  to  Ah, 
advising  him  to  return  to  Egypt,  or  provide  better 
troops  if  he  meant  to  fight  with  him. 

In  January,  1815,  the  pasha,  with  all  the  forces 
and  camels  he  could  muster,  left  Mecca  and  pro- 
ceeded towards  Kolach,  where  Hassan  Pasha,  Ach- 
med  Bonaparte,  Topouz  Oglu,  Sheriff"  Rajah,  and 
other  chiefs  were  already  assembled ;  and  where 
sufficient  provisions  had  been  collected  for  fifty  or 
sixty  days.  While  here,  information  was  brought 
that  the  enemy  had  seized  upon  Bissel,  a  strong 


286  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES 

position  in  their  rear,  which  would  enable  them  to 
interrupt  the  communication  between  Kolach  and 
Ta'if.  Bissei  is  a  level  spot  of  ground,  encircled  by 
a  natural  rampart  of  hills,  through  which  are  seve- 
ral narrow  passes  or  entrances.  On  these  emi- 
nences the  Wahabees  were  posted,  while  the  area 
within  contained  their  stores  and  ammunition,  be- 
sides a  great  quantity  of  private  property.  Their 
whole  force  was  reckoned  at  25,000  infantry,  ac- 
companied by  5000  camels  ;  but  they  had  few  cav- 
alry, and  were  entirely  destitute  of  artillery.  Among 
the  distinguished  leaders  of  this  army  were  Faisal, 
brother  of  Abdallah,  the  renowned  heroine  Ghalia, 
the  Sheik  Tami,  with  all  the  chiefs  of  the  Yemen 
mountains,  and  some  whose  dwellings  were  as  far 
eastward  as  the  borders  of  Hadramaut. 

When  the  pasha's  cavalry  approached  they  wisely 
remained  on  their  hills,  and  repulsed  with  some  loss 
an  attack  made  on  a  valley  where  the  Turks  wished 
to  plant  one  of  their  fieldpieces.  A  whole  day  was 
consumed  in  fruitless  attempts ;  and  such  was  the 
terror  inflicted  by  the  lances  of  the  Wahabees,  that 
numbers  deserted  the  ranks  and  fled  to  Mecca,  where 
they  spread  the  alarming  news  of  the  pasha's  death, 
and  the  total  defeat  of  the  expedition.  Finding  he 
could  have  no  chance  of  success  so  long  as  the 
enemy  kept  the  mountains,  the  policy  of  Ali  was  to 
decoy  them  into  the  plain.  He  sent  during  the 
night  for  reinforcements  from  Kolach,  and  early 
next  morning  renewed  the  assault ;  commanding 
the  ofl[icers  to  advance  with  their  columns  closer  to 
the  enemy's  position,  and  after  the  first  fire,  to  re- 
treat in  seeming  disorder.  The  stratagem  had  the 
desired  eff"ect.  The  Arabs,  seeing  their  adversa- 
ries fly,  thought  they  were  panic-struck,  and  that 
the  fortunate  moment  for  completely  crushing  them 
had  arrived.  They  imprudently  abandoned  the  steeps 
and  gave  chase  over  the  plain  ;  and  when  they  had 
advanced  to  a  sufficient  distance  from  their  strong- 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  287 

holds,  the  pasha  wheeled  round  with  his  cavalry, 
outflanked  the  pursuers,  and,  after  a  hot  engagement 
of  five  hours,  gained  a  decisive  victory. 

In  this  action  the  pasha  fought  in  person  at  the 
moment  when  he  ordered  his  cavalry  to  wheel  and 
repel  their  pursuers.  In  order  to  keep  alive  the 
spirit  of  resistance,  he  dismounted,  commanded  his 
carpet  to  be  spread  on  a  little  level  spot  in  presence 
of  the  whole  line,  and  seating  himself  upon  it, 
he  called  for  his  pipe,  declaring  that  from  that 
ground  he  would  not  move,  but  there  await  victory 
or  death  as  fate  might  determine.  A  reward  of  six 
dollars  was  proclaimed  to  every  soldier  who  should 
present  him  with  the  head  of  an  enemy  ;  and  in  a 
few  hours  5000  of  these  ghastly  trophies  were  piled 
up  before  him.  Mere  courage  was  all  the  Wahabees 
had  to  oppose  to  military  skill  and  experience  ;  and 
this  noble  quality  did  not  forsake  them  to  the  last,  for 
even  in  the  most  desperate  condition  they  maintained 
the  fight  during  a  considerable  time.  The  Turkish 
infantry  at  length  turned  their  position  ;  when  She- 
riff Rajah,  who  had  just  arrived  with  his  corps,  like 
another  Blucher,  fell  upon  their  rear,  and  compelled 
them  to  fly  in  the  utmost  disorder.  He  beset  the 
narrow  valley  through  which  they  attempted  to  re- 
treat, and  here  1500  of  them  were  surrounded  and 
cut  to  pieces. 

The  slaughter  was  prodigious,  the  whole  field 
being  strewed  over  with  headless  bodies  ;  for  there 
were  few  of  the  mercenary  Turks  who  did  not 
claim  and  receive  the  recompense  promised  them  by 
their  commander-in-chief.  About  300  were  taken 
alive  at  the  express  desire  of  Ali,  who  ordered  his 
troops  to  offer  them  quarter,  as  very  few  of  the 
A  rabs  had  condescended  to  beg  for  mercy,  A  body 
still  remained  on  the  heights  with  a  view  to  guard 
the  baggage ;  they  stood  their  ground  with  desperate 
bravery,  but  their  position  was  at  length  carried, 
and  not  a  man  left  alive.     Tami  fled  with  only  a 


288  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

very  few  followers,  as  did  also  Faisal  and  Ghalia, 
The  escape  of  this  amazoii  was  a  disappointment 
to  Ali,  who  was  anxious  to  send  her  as  a  trophy 
to  Constantinople  ;  but  no  proposals  could  induce 
her  to  desert  the  Bedouins,  or  confide  in  the  offers 
of  the  Turks.  The  whole  camp  of  the  Wahabees, 
— their  provisions,  ammunition,  camels,  women, 
and  all  that  belonged  to  them, — became  the  prey 
of  the  victors.  The  tent  of  Faisal,  which  contained 
about  2000  dollars  (437/.),  was  bestowed  on  Rajah, 
who  had  especially  distinguished  himself.  Mounted 
on  a  famous  mare,  he  had  galloped  far  in  advance 
of  the  lines  through  the  enemy's  ranks,  and  striking 
his  lance  into  the  ground  immediately  before  the 
door  of  the  tent,  he  defended  himself  with  his  sword 
until  he  was  rescued  by  the  approach  of  his  friends. 
The  loss  of  the  Turks  was  reckoned  only  between 
400  and  500  men,  chiefly  owing  to  the  skilful  dispo- 
sitions of  the  pasha.  Individual  instances  are  re- 
corded of  tlie  most  romantic  valour  among  the  Arabs. 
Bakrouj  killed  two  of  the  pasha's  officers  with  his 
own  hand  ;  and  when  his  mare  was  shot  under  him, 
he  fought  on  foot  among  the  Turkish  cavalry  until 
he  found  an  opportunity  of  pulling  a  trooper  from 
his  horse,  which  he  instantly  mounted,  and  by  this 
means  escaped.  Ibn  Shokban,  chief  of  Beishe,  with 
a  few  hundred  men,  cut  his  way  through  the  whole 
body  of  the  enemy's  infantry.  Numerous  parties 
of  the  Azir  Arabs  had  sworn  by  the  oath  of  divorce 
not  to  fly,  but  if  possible  to  return  to  their  families 
victorious.  After  the  battle,  whole  ranks  of  them 
were  found  lying  dead  upon  the  hills,  tied  together 
by  the  legs  with  ropes.  Having  fought  as  long  as 
their  ammunition  lasted,  they  had  resolved  to  perish 
to  the  last  man  rather  than  disgrace  their  tribe  by 
running  away. 

Tidings  of  this  important  victory  were  imme- 
diately despatched  to  Constantinople  and  Cairo. 
Elated  with  success,  the  Turks  resumed  their  na- 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  289 

tional  fierceness  and  insolence,  which  had  in  some 
degree  been  checked.  Ah  stained  his  laurels  with 
the  most  revolting  cruelties.  The  300  prisoners  to 
whom  he  had  promised  quarter  fell  by  the  hand  of 
the  executioner.  Fifty  of  them  were  impaled  alive 
before  the  gates  of  Mecca ;  twelve  suffered  a  like 
horrible  death  at  the  halting-places  on  the  road  to 
Jidda ;  and  the  rest  imder  the  walls  of  that  town. 
Their  carcasses  were  allowed  to  remain  until  the 
dogs  and  vultures  devoured  them. 

Without  suffering  the  ardour  of  his  troops  to  cool, 
the  pasha  directed  his  march  on  Taraba,  where  he 
arrived  within  four  days  after  the  battle.  Faisal  fled 
at  his  approach ;  and  the  deserted  inhabitants,  who 
consisted  chiefly  of  old  men,  women,  and  children, 
were  glad  to  capitulate  and  beg  for  protection.  A 
panic  had  seized  the  whole  country,  and  the  Turk- 
ish army  met  not  the  slightest  opposition.  As  the 
strength  of  the  enemy  lay  in  the  southern  countries, 
Ali  resolved  to  follow  them  into  their  own  territo- 
ries, and  if  possible  to  exterminate  their  party. 

Several  of  the  chiefs  and  fugitives  who  had  made 
their  escape  from  Bissel  posted  themselves  at  Beishe, 
a  fertile  country  eastward  of  the  Yemen  moun- 
tains. Here  they  had  assembled  to  a  considerable 
number,  and  seemed  determined  to  maintain  a  very 
obstinate  resistance, — having  defended  themselves 
by  a  line  of  mud-fortifications,  pierced  everywhere 
with  loopholes  for  the  discharge  of  fire-arms.  A 
cannonade  was  kept  up  without  effect  for  two  days, 
when  a  discharge  of  shells  put  an  end  to  the  con- 
test. One  of  these  having  exploded,  set  fire  to  some 
combustibles,  which  communicating  to  all  the  dry 
woodwork  and  thatching  of  reed  and  palm-branches 
in  the  interior,  had  the  effect  of  spreading  almost 
immediately  into  one  general  blaze  ;— the  heat  and 
smoke  of  which  became  intolerable  even  to  the  as- 
sailants, and  soon  drove  out  the  besieged  to  a  pre- 
cipitate flight,  when  they  were  instantly  pursued  by 
Vol.  II.— B  b 


2j}0  history  of  the  WAHABEES. 

vhe  Turkish  horsemen.  Among  those  who  escaped 
was  the  heroine  Ghaha.  Having  no  longer  any  se- 
cure place  of  retreat,  she  led  her  followers  into  the 
desert,  and  ultimately  reached  Deraiah.  The  castle 
of  Ranniah,  with  several  others,  capitulated. 

One  formidable  enemy  yet  remained  in  the  field, 
the  Sheik  Tami,  who  was  resolved  to  try  a  second 
battle,  and  had  assembled  a  considerable  army  be- 
yond the  rugged  mountains  of  Azir,  twelve  or  four- 
teen days'  journey  westward  from  Beishe.  Towards 
this  district  Mohammed  Ali  next  directed  his  at- 
tempts. On  the  march,  his  army  suffered  the  ex- 
tremities of  "hunger  and  fatigue.  A  hundred  horses 
sometimes  died  in  one  day,  and  out  of  more  than' 
10,000  camels  only  300  survived  the  expedition. 
The  sinking  spirits  of  the  troops  were  kept  up  by  thei 
pasha,  who  promised  them  a  glorious  booty  in  plun- 
dering the  towns  of  Yemen.  Tami  had  collected  a 
force  of  8,000  or  10,000  men  at  a  mountain-fortress 
called  Tor,  so  strong  as  to  be  deemed  by  the  Arabs 
impregnable.  In  two  days  the  Turkish  artillery 
forced  the  Wahabees  to  yield,  though  the  combat 
was  more  vigorously  maintained  than  at  Bissel.; 
In  the  castle  were  found  considerable  stores  of 
provisions,  which  proved  most  seasonable  to  the  in*- 
vading  army. 

Tami  fled ;  but  he  was  the  last  to  quit  the  field. 
Having  taken  refuge  in  the  house  of  a  friend,  he 
was  betrayed  and  delivered  up  in  chains  to  Sheriff 
Rajah,  who  was  roaming  about  the  mountains  in 
search  of  the  fugitive.  Bakrouj  was  at  the  same 
time  defeated  in  Zohran,  and  being  hemmed  in 
between  two  fires,  was  taken  prisoner.  The  two 
noble  captives  were  sent  to  the  pasha,  and  both  suf- 
fered the  death  of  traitors.  Bakrouj  was  never 
forgiven  the  insulting  letter  which  he  wrote  from 
Taraba.  He  maintained  a  sulky  silence  under  his 
misfortunes.  Once  he  made  his  escape  on  finding 
his  guards  asleep-  but  was  retaken,  after  killing 


HISTORY    OF    THE    AVAHABEES.  291 

two  men  and  wounding  another  with  a  poniard 
which  he  had  seized.  His  death  was  accomplished 
with  a  studied  cruelty, — such  as  might  at  once  gra- 
tify the  revenge  of  Ali,  and  furnish  a  barbarous  en- 
tertainment to  his  soldiers.  The  prisoner,  with  his 
hands  bound,  was  placed  in  the  midst ;  and  they 
were  directed  with  their  sabres  to  cut  him  slightly, 
that  he  might  die  as  it  were  by  inches.  His  tor- 
ments were  severe  and  protracted ;  but  he  expired 
at  last  without  having  uttered  one  complaint. 

The  fate  of  Tami  was  equally  tragical.  This 
chief  is  represented  as  a  man  of  strong  natural 
powers ;  short  in  stature,  with  a  long  white  beard, 
and  eyes  darting  fire.  His  conduct  inspired  the 
whole  army  with  respect.  The  pasha  often  con- 
versed with  him  for  amusement ;  but  it  was  like 
the  treachery  of  the  tiger,  who  sports  with  his  prey 
before  he  seizes  it  in  his  grasp.  He  promised  to 
write  to  the  sultan  in  his  favour,  and  procure  him 
permission  to  live  in  retirement  in  the  mountains  of 
Roumeha ;  but  this  solemn  pledge  was  violated. 
The  captive  sheik  was  sent  to  Cairo,  were  he  was 
paraded  through  the  streets,  seated  on  a  camel, 
loaded  with  an  immense  chain  about  his  neck,  and 
the  head  of  Bakrouj  in  a  bag  suspended  from  his 
shoulders.  From  this  city  he  was  conveyed  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  was  immediately  beheaded. 

After  vanquishing  the  most  renowned  chiefs  of  the 
southern  Wahabees,  it  seemed  to  be  the  eager  desire 
of  Ali  to  riot  in  the  far-famed  wealth  of  Yemen  ;  and 
with  this  view  he  opened  a  correspondence  with  the 
Imam  of  Sanaa.  But  the  soldiers,  worn  out  with 
disease  and  fatigue,  and  considering  the  object  of 
the  expedition  as  accomplished,  openly  declared 
their  wish  of  returning  to  Mecca.  Instead  of  ad- 
vancing southward,  Ali  directed  his  march  towards 
Gonfode,  which  surrendered  without  the  slightest 
resistance.  Thence  he  proceeded  to  Mecca,  with  a 
remnant  of  ojily  1500  men,  moneyless  and  in  rags. 


292  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

being  all  that  remained  of  an  army  of  4000.  In  April 
he  visited  Medina,  where  Toussomi  was  governor  ; 
probably  with  a  design  to  obtain  information  re- 
specting the  affairs  of  the  northern  Hejaz,  and  to 
concert  with  him  measures  for  their  future  proceed- 
ings. But  the  state  of  Egypt  afforded  a  sufficient 
reason  for  his  immediate  departure.  Apprehensions 
were  entertained  of  an  attack  being  made  on  Alex- 
andria by  the  capitan-pasha  of  the  grand  seignior. 
An  insurrection  of  the  troops  had  also  broken  out  at 
Cairo,  originating  in  their  dislike  to  the  attempted 
introduction  of  the  European  system  of  discipline  ; 
and  when  the  pasha  reached  his  capital  in  June,  1815, 
after  an  absence  of  nearly  two  years,  he  found  every 
thing  in  tumult  and  confusion. 

The  remainder  of  the  Arabian  war  was  now  left 
in  the  hands  of  Toussoun  Pasha,  who,  while  his 
father  was  subduing  the  southern  tribes,  had  con- 
ducted operations  in  the  north  against  Abdallah  ibn 
Saoud.     When  the  news  of  All's  success  became 
known  to  the  Arabs  on  the  frontier  of  Nejed,  many 
of  their  sheiks  came  to  Medina,  and  made  proposals 
to   Toussoun  to  join  him  against  the  Wahabees, 
whose  power  they  had  felt  more  severely  than  others 
at  a  greater  distance.     With  these  assurances  he 
conceived  hopes  of  conquering  the  province  of  Nejed 
and  emulating  his  father's  fame.     Setting  out  with  a 
small  expedition  of  2500  men,  infantry  and  cavalry, 
he  resolved  to  try  his  fortune  by  making  an  attack 
on  Kasym.    After  a  march  of  ten  or  eleven  days,  he 
arrived  at  Rass,  a  considerable  town  defended  by  a 
wall.  This,  with  several  other  large  villages,  gave  in 
their  submission.     But  here  he  found  himself  in  a 
precarious  situation  ;  and  discovered  that,  like  most 
Turks,  he  had  not  sufficiently  calculated  his  means. 
The  light  troops  of  the  Wahabees  were  hovering 
around,  and  rendered  his  army  wholly  dependent  on 
two  or  three  villages  for  their  daily  subsistence. 
The  road  to  Medina  was  occupied  by  the  enemy ; 
and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  gallant  Thomas 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  293 

Keith,  while  hastening  with  250  horsemen  to  the 
assistance  of  his  commander,  was  surrounded  by  a 
superior  force,  and  fell  at  the  head  of  his  troops, 
who  were  all  cut  to  pieces.  In  this  action  the  brave 
Scotchman  killed  four  of  the  enemy  with  his  o\vn 
hand. 

In  the  mean  time,  Abdallah  had  not  neglected 
his  duty,  having  likewise  entered  the  province  of 
Kasym  with  his  army,  and  fixed  his  head-quarters 
at  Shenana,  only  five  hours  distance  from  Khabara, 
where  Toussoun  was  now  encamped.  In  this  di- 
lemma the  adventurous  pasha  wished  to  terminate 
all  suspense  by  a  battle ;  but  his  officers  and  soldiers 
declined, — deeming  it  more  prudent  for  persons  in 
their  situation  to  compromise  than  to  fight ;  the 
more  so  as  Mohammed  Ali  had  written  to  Abdallah 
before  quitting  Hejaz,  exhorting  him  to  submission, 
and  offering  terms  of  peace  ;  at  the  same  time  au- 
thorizing his  son  to  conclude  the  truce,  if  that  could 
be  done  on  favourable  conditions.  Abdallah  on  his 
part  had  reasons  for  bringing  matters  to  a  pacific 
termination.  He  foresaw  that  the  destruction  even 
of  Toussoun's  entire  force  would  be  of  Httle  real 
advantage  to  him  so  long  as  the  Turks  could  repair 
their  losses  from  the  abundant  resources  of  Egypt. 
He  knew  also  that  they  possessed  the  means  of 
bribery  ;  and  that  some  of  his  companions  in  arms 
were  in  their  hearts  the  allies  of  his  enemies. 

Negotiations  were  speedily  concluded  ;  and  in 
ratifying  the  treaty  Abdallah  renounced  all  claim  to 
the  holy  cities  ;  affected  to  style  himself  the  dutiful 
subject  of  the  sultan ;  and  obtained  a  free  passage 
for  the  Wahabees  whenever  they  wished  to  perform 
the  pilgrimage  Toussoun  restored  those  towns  of 
Kasym  which  he  held  in  his  possession,  and  dis- 
missed from  his  party  all  the  sheiks  of  that  country 
who  had  joined  his  standard. 

The  exchange  of  ratifications  was  conducted  with 
considerable  ceremony.    The  manifesto  in  which 

Bb2 


294  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

the  chief  of  the  desert  acknowledged  his  allegiance 
to  the  Porte  ran  in  these  words  : — "  To  Toussoun. — 
I  lie  at  the  gate  of  your  mercy,  sire ;  I  ask  pardon 
of  God  and  your  highness  ;  1  desire  to  be  received 
into  the  number  of  the  faithful  subjects  of  the  sul- 
tan ;  and  from  this  day  hence  we  shall  obey  his 
orders,  in  making  prayers  for  his  august  person 
every  Friday  in  our  mosques  and  on  the  mountain- 
tops.  Finally,  on  our  part  there  shall  be  no  attempt 
at  rebellion."  On  this  being  read  to  the  Wahabee 
army,  they  shouted,  with  one  voice,  "  Yes,  we  will 
obey  I"  and  instantly  the  air  was  rent  with  prayers 
for  the  health  of  the  sultan  and  the  glory  of  his  arms. 
The  envoy  of  Toussoun  then  invested  Abdallah  with 
the  emblems  of  his  submission, — a  pelisse,  a  sabre, 
and  several  horses  richly  caparisoned.  "  This," 
said  he,  in  presenting  him  with  the  sword,  "  is  the 
pledge  of  your  fealty  ;  it  will  be  your  protector  so 
long  as  you  are  faithful  to  your  promises  ;  but  if 
you  disobey  the  orders  of  the  sultan,  our  master,  it 
will  be  his  avenger."  Again  the  whole  camp  re- 
sounded with  shouts  for  the  prosperity  of  the  grand 
seignior,  and  promises  to  repeat  his  name  in  their 
Friday's  prayers. 

Toussoun  quitted  Arabia  in  the  beginning  of  No- 
vember. At  Cairo  he  was  welcomed  with  all  the 
honours  due  to  his  rank  and  bravery.  Salvos  of  ar- 
tillery announced  his  approach,  and  crowds  thronged 
the  streets  to  behold  the  deliverer  of  the  holy 
cities.  By  his  father  alone  he  was  coldly  received. 
,  His  subsequent  history  is  short :  he  was  appointed 
to  command  a  large  body  of  troops  encamped  at 
Rosetta  for  the  defence  of  the  coast,  and  died  there 
next  year  (September,  1816)  of  the  plague. 

Mohammed  Ali  was  evidently  not  sincere  in  his 
offers  of  peace  ;  and  pretexts  were  easily  found  for 
renewing  hostilities.  His  letters  of  acquiescence 
to  Abdallah  were  extremely  ambiguous.  He  de- 
manded the  restitution  of  the  treasures  which  his 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  295 

father  had  taken  from  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet ;  he 
required  that  Deraiah  should  submit  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  governor  of  Medina  ;  and  he  refused  to 
confirm  the  treaty,  unless  the  Wahabees  would  cede 
to  him  the  province  of  Hassa.  Deceit  wrs  one  of 
the  most  prominent  and  reprehensible  features  in 
the  character  of  Ali ;  and  although  his  son,  his  equal 
in  rank  (both  being  pachas  of  three  tails),  had  con- 
cluded a  peace  that  was  considered  binding  on  hi& 
whole  party,  he  represented  matters  under  a  differ- 
ent point  of  view  at  Constantinople.  As  he  had 
pledged  himself  to  annihilate  the  heretics  by  de- 
stroying their  capital,  he  found  it  necessary  to  per- 
suade the  sultan  that  he  had  not  yet  abandoned  that 
object ;  the  treaty  agreed  to  by  Toussoun  being  only 
a  temporary  armistice. 

It  now  became  manifest  to  Abdallah,  either  that 
the  young  prince  had  deceived  him,  or  that  the  fa- 
ther, by  his  extravagant  demands,  had  given  a  fresh 
proof  of  the  contempt  in  which  he  held  all  engage- 
ments. He  summoned  a  council  of  his  kinsmen  and 
principal  officers,  and  their  opinion  was,  that  they 
had  no  alternative  but  arms  if  they  wished  to  pre- 
serve their  religion  and  their  independence.  De- 
fensive preparations  were  everywhere  made  ;  stores 
of  provisions  and  ammunition  were  thrown  into  the 
cities  and  fortresses  ;  the  sheiks  were  obliged  to 
renew  their  oaths  of  fidelity  ;  the  imams  in  the  pul- 
pits discoursed  of  war  and  the  treachery  of  the 
Turks.  Thirty  thousand  troops  were  raised,  and 
the  command  assigned  to  officers  whose  talents  and 
courage  had  been  tried  in  the  preceding  campaigns. 
The  rich  sold  their  property  to  pay  the  army  and 
purchase  the  necessary  supplies.  All  were  animated 
with  the  most  patriotic  enthusiasm :  "  God,"  said 
they,  "  will  give  us,  who  profess  his  unity,  the  vic^ 
tory  over  those  who  admit  a  plurality."  Abdallah 
visited  the  provinces  in  person,  and  obtained  rein- 
forcements from  Bahrein  and  Hassa ;  some  tribes 


296  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

from  Oman  joined  his  standard,  and  the  Arabs  of 
Yemen  sent  him  2000  combatants. 

The  pasha  on  his  side  had  displayed  equal  activity. 
When  the  alarm  of  invasion  and  revolt  in  Egypt  had 
subsided,  he  ordered  a  powerful  expedition  to  be 
fitted  out  for  Hejaz,  which  he  intrusted  to  the  com- 
mand of  his  adopted  son  Ibrahim,  a  prince  of  emi- 
nent bravery,  and  who  had  already  disting:uished 
himself  in  suppressing'  the  mutinous  Mamlouks, 
Six  months  were  devoted  to  the  transport  of  mili- 
tary stores.  In  September,  1816,  the  general  left 
Cairo.  He  was  accompanied  by  about  2000  infantry, 
who  went  by  Cossier  to  Yembo,  and  1500  Libyan 
Bedouin  hersemen,  who  proceeded  by  land.  In  his 
train  were  some  French  officers,  and  the  Arab  hero 
Sheik  Rajah,  who  had  been  sent  to  Egypt  in  chains, 
but  was  now  released,  as  his  services  might  prove 
useful  to  the  expedition.  His  orders  were  to  attack 
Deraiah,  by  way  of  Medina  and  Kasym.  In  ten 
days  after  his  landing  he  reached  the  city  of  the 
Prophet.  Here  he  took  a  vow  never  to  sheath  his 
sword,  nor  to  drink  wine  or  other  forbidden  liquor, 
until  he  had  entirely  extirpated  the  enemies  of  his 
reliarion.  Following  the  route  of  Toussoun,  he  took 
up  his  position  at  Henakiah,  where  several  weeks 
were  spent  in  skirmishing  and  plundering.  Some 
of  the  neighbouring  chiefs  joined  his  ranks,  among 
whom  was  Ghanem,  sheik  of  the  Harbs,  who  brought 
over  500  of  his  tribe.  Nothing  could  have  been 
more  seasonable  than  such  reinforcements,  as  his 
troops  were  suffering  from  epidemic  diseases  and 
the  harassing  warfare  of  the  desert ;  for  the  Arabs 
found  means  to  steal  at  night  into  the  Turkish  camp, 
where  they  killed  or  cut  the  legs  of  their  horses  and 
camels. 

Abdallah  was  encamped  in  the  vicinity  of  Aenezeh. 
He  had  conceived  the  bold  project  of  marching 
directly  on  Medina,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men  ;  while 
his  brother  Faisal  should  make  a  descent  on  Mecca, 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.  297 

Jidda,  and  Vembo,  and  thus  intercept  the  convoys 
of  troops  and  provisions  from  Egypt.  From  this 
enterprise  he  was  diverted  by  the  revolt  of  some  of 
his  allies,  and  the  defeat  of  a  body  of  10,000  troops, 
which  he  commanded  in  person.  The  town  of  Rass 
was  the  first  that  offered  any  serious  obstacle  to 
the  advance  of  Ibrahim.  It  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  the  inhabitants  exerted  themselves  with  signal 
courage.  The  women  in  the  garrison  assisted  their 
brave  defenders,  and  the  besiegers  were  repulsed  at 
all  points.  Already  3000  Turks  had  fallen,  and  the 
mortality  daily  increased.  Hundreds  of  the  heads 
of  the  slaughtered  Wahabees  were  exposed  to  the 
view  of  the  inhabitants,  in  the  hope  that  this  hideous 
spectacle  might  terrify  them  into  a  surrender  ;  but 
it  only  increased  their  desire  of  revenge. 

In  this  perilous  situation,  and  reduced  to  extreme 
distress,  Ibrahim  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege, 
after  wasting  three  months  and  seventeen  days  in 
useless  efforts.  This,  however,  was  the  only  reverse 
which  he  experienced.  As  if  the  fortunes  of  his 
father  had  suddenly  returned,  he  advanced  from 
victory  to  victory,  and  in  the  blood  of  the  heretics 
speedily  washed  out  the  affront  which  his  arms  had 
received  under  the  walls  of  Rass.  Khabara  surren- 
dered after  a  cannonade  of  a  few  hours.  Aenezeh 
followed  the  example ;  the  greater  part  of  the  troops 
having  fled,  without  waiting  to  obtain  articles  of 
capitulation.  All  the  towns  and  tribes  of  Kasym 
had  now  submitted  to  the  Turks  ;  Abdallah  retired 
from  place  to  place  before  the  invaders,  and  saw  all 
his  strongholds  fall  into  their  hands.  Boureidah, 
Shakara,  and  Dorama,  were  successively  invested, 
taken  possession  of,  and  demolished  by  the  enemy. 
Shakara  was  a  handsome  commercial  town,  and 
reckoned  the.  strongest  fortress  in  the  country. 
The  obstinacy  which  the  Turks  had  experienced  at 
Dorama  led  to  a  cruel  retaliation.  All  the  inhabit- 
ants were  put  to  the  sword ;  the  soldiers  had  orders 


298  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

to  fire  upon  them  in  their  houses ;  and  in  two  hours 
the  work  of  indiscriminate  carnage  was  completed. 

Nothing-  now  remained  to  consummate  the  triumph 
of  Ibrahim  but  the  capture  of  Deraiah,     With  a 
force  nearly  6000  strong  he  directed  his  march  to- 
wards that  capital,  which  he  reached  on  the  6th  of 
April.  The  place  was  immediately  invested,  redoubts 
were  constructed,   intrenchments   thrown  up,  and 
every  preparation  made  for  a  resolute  siege.     This 
city,  famous  as  the  metropolis  of  Nejed  and  the  seat 
of  the  power  and  government  of  the  Wahabees,  lies 
about  400  miles  eastward  of  Medina,  in  a  fertile  val- 
ley called  Wady  Hanifa,  rich  in  fruits  and  grain,  and 
watered  by  a  stream  (El  Baten)  which,  though  dry 
in  summer,  in  the  rainy  season  runs  a  course  of  con- 
siderable extent.     Its  position  is  naturally  strong, 
the  mountains  enclosing  it  on  either  hand  ;  and  the 
only  entrances  to  the  valley  being  through  two  in- 
lets, of  which  that  on  the  west  side  is  so  narrow  as 
to  admit  but  of  one  camel  at  a  time,  and  might 
easily  be  defended  against  any  number  of  assailants. 
Though  formerly  a  place  of  some  note,  its  true 
situation  and  importance  were   now   for  the  first 
time  known  to  Europeans.     The  town  was  com 
posed  of  five  small  villages  or  quarters,  each  sur- 
rounded by   a  wall  fortified  with  bastions.     The 
suburbs  were  unprotected,  and  covered  with  gardens 
and  fruit-trees.     The  houses  were  chiefly  of  stone 
or  brick,  and  the  bazars  consisted  of  shops  made 
of  reeds,  which  could  easily  be  transported  from  one 
place  to  another.  There  were  twenty-eight  mosques 
in  it  and  thirty  colleges,  but  no  baths,  khans,  or 
public  inns.     The  inhabtants,  proverbial  for  their 
hospitality,  were  estimated  at  13,000. 

Five  months  were  consumed  in  the  siege  of  this 
important  capital;  both  parties  maintaining  the  cour 
test  with  undaunted  resolution,  and  with  alternate 
advantages.  Abdallah  did  his  utmost  by  word  and 
laction  to  animate  his  troops ;  money  and  presents 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES*  299 

were  lavishly  distributed ;  and  the  women  braved  tho 
fire  of  the  besiegers  to  fetch  water  to  the  wounded. 
Ibrahim  meanwhile  made  little  progress,  and  the 
accidental  explosion  of  a  magazine  threatened  to 
defeat  entirely  the  object  of  the  expedition.  More 
than  200  barrels  of  gunpowder,  and  as  many  loaded 
shells,  blew  up  in  the  midst  of  his  camp ;  thus  leav- 
ing him  almost  destitute  of  ammmiition,  and  sur- 
rounded with  enemies  in  the  heart  of  a  desert  500 
leagues  from  Egypt.  No  resource  remained  for 
the  Turks  but  their  courage  and  their  sabres  until 
fresh  supplies  were  obtained  from  Medina  and  the 
neighbouring  garrisons.  The  governors  of  Bagdad 
and  Busso.ra  sent  large  caravans  with  provisions, 
while  recruits  with  ammunition  and  artillery-stores 
arrived  in  successive  detachments  from  Cairo.  The 
combat  was  renewed ;  and  to  inspirit  the  languid 
soldier,  fifty  piastres  were  promised  for  every  head 
or  pair  of  ears  he  should  bring  to  his  commander. 

Abdallah  now  found  that  his  capital  could  no 
longer  be  defended.  All  his  sorties  had  been  attended 
with  loss ;  two  of  his  sons  were  taken  prisoners^ 
and  one  of  them  put  to  death.  The  fortresses  on  the 
adjoining  heights,  in  the  gardens,  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  dry  bed  of  the  river,  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  assailants.  Three  of  the  five  quarters  of  the 
city  made  a  conditional  surrender,  and  the  rest  were 
cut  off  from  connnunicating  with  the  villages  that 
supplied  them  with  provisions.  In  this  forlorn  po- 
sition, Abdallah,  with  his  guard  of  400  black  slaves,- 
still  maintained  a  brave  resistance  in  his  palace, 
determined  to  sacrifice  his  life  on  the  nrins  of  his 
expiring  country  ;  but  he  was  at  length  compelled, 
by  the  impatient  clamours  of  the  citizens,  to  hoist  a 
flag  of  truce  and  demand  a  conference,  which  was 
immediately  granted.  With  a  retinue  of  200  men, 
he  repaired  to  the  tent  of  Ibrahim,  and  offered  terms 
of  surrender,  which  the  pasha  consented  to  accept ; 
at  the  same  time  acquainting  him,  that  in  compliance 


300  HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES. 

with  the  order  of  his  father,  the  Wahabee  chief  must 
immediately  take  his  departure  for  Egypt.  The 
condition  was  alarming ;  but  it  seemed  to  be  the  only 
means  of  averting  a  more  tragical  catastrophe,  and 
the  generous  Abdallah  accepted  it. 

Trusting  to  the  hopes  of  security  expressed  by  the 
conqueror,  and  that  his  family  and  capital  would  be 
saved  from  destruction,  in  token  of  which  he  had 
received  a  white  handkerchief,  the  emblem  of  peace^ 
he  quitted  his  palace  amid  the  tears  and  regrets  of 
his  friends,  crossed  the  desert  with  a  small  train  of 
attendants,  and  was  received  at  Cairo  by  the  vice* 
roy  with  every  outward  demonstration  of  respect. 
After  a  short  conference  he  was  despatched  to  Con- 
stantinople under  an  escort  of  Tartars.  The  parti- 
sans of  Ali  give  him  the  credit  of  interposing  with 
the  sultan  to  pardon  the  obnoxious  captive ;  for 
such  was  now  the  situation  of  the  too  credulous 
Abdallah.  But  the  Ottoman  divan  were  implacable. 
Mercy  is  no  attribute  either  of  the  religion  or  the 
policy  of  the  Turks  ;  and,  after  being  paraded  over 
the  city  for  three  days,  the  unhappy  chief,  with  his 
two  companions  in  misfortune,  his  secretary  and 
treasurer,  were  beheaded  (December  19,  1818)  in 
the  public  square  of  St.  Sophia.  The  pasha  and  his 
son  were  complimented  on  their  victories  by  the 
Sublime  Porte,  and  honoured  with  several  costly 
presents. 

The  fall  of  the  Wahabee  capital  may  be  said  to 
have  completed  the  conquest  of  Nejed.  The  prov- 
ince of  Haryk  was  reduced  after  a  slight  resist- 
ance. Other  districts  sent  deputies  offering  volun- 
tary submission.  The  want  of  sufficient  provisions, 
rendered  more  severe  by  the  destructive  operations 
of  the  siege,  occasioned  a  very  general  mutiny  in 
the  Turkish  army.  The  soldiers  committed  all  sorts 
of  excess,  plundering  the  houses  and  pillaging  the 
country.  Ibrahim  himself  narrowly  escaped  assas- 
sination ;  but  his  well-timed  intrepidity,  and  the 


Abdallah  ibn  Saoud,  Chief  of  the  Wahabees. 


Vol.  II.— C  c 


i 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WAHABEES.     "  303 

decapitation  of  some  of  the  insurgent  chiefs,  had  the 
effect  of  restoring  order.  One  of  the  Arab  sheiks 
was  punished  by  having  his  teeth  drawn,  and  another 
was  blown  from  the  mouth  of  a  cannon. 

The  news  of  Abdallah's  death  spread  universal 
grief  among  the  inhabitants  of  Deraiah :  and  their 
consternation  was  increased  when  the  orders  of  All 
were  communicated,  that  the  place  must  be  razed  to 
the  ground,  and  the  whole  family  of  their  chief  sent 
captives  to  Egypt.  A  group  of  500  exiles,  including 
several  of  the  brothers,  uncles,  and  sons  of  Abdallah, 
were  transported  to  Cairo,  where  small  pensions 
were  assigned  them.  As  it  became  desirable  to 
evacuate  the  place,  an  epidemic,  the  consequence 
of  fatigues  and  privations  of  all  kinds,  having  begun 
to  commit  the  most  frightful  ravages,  the  work  of 
demolition  was  enjoined  without  delay.  The  date- 
trees  in  the  gardens  and  suburbs  were  cut  down ; 
and  the  soldiers  set  fire  to  the  houses  the  moment 
the  inmates  had  made  their  escape,  many  of  whom 
clung  affectionately  to  their  homes  until  they  were 
nearly  buried  in  the  ruins.  As  the  season  of  the 
year  was  at  the  hottest,  and  disease  and  devastation 
doing  their  work  at  the  same  time,  the  spectacle 
was  truly  afflicting.  In  the  space  of  twenty  days 
Deraiah  was  completely  unpeopled,  and  not  one 
stone  left  upon  another. 

Before  quitting  the  scene  of  devastation,  Ibrahim 
traversed  the  country  to  ascertain  that  the  extermi- 
natory decree  had  been  executed  against  all  the 
fortresses  that  might  serve  as  future  strongholds  or 
railying-points  for  the  heretics.  This  done,  he 
repaired  to  Medina,  having  already  despatched  the 
artillery  and  part  of  the  troops  to  that  place.  Here 
and  at  Mecca  he  returned  thanks  to  the  prophet  for 
this  signal  triumph  over  his  enemies  ;  after  which 
he  departed  with  the  sickly  and  exhausted  remains 
of  his  army  for  Egypt. 

The  disturbances  which  had  broken  out  in  the 


304       HISTORY  OF  THE  M'AHAEEES. 

soutli  of  Hejaz  were  suppressed  by  Halil  Pasha, 
who  had  been  sent  with  a  remforcement  to  Deraiah ; 
but  on  finding  that  the  place  had  surrendered  he 
directed  his  march  on  Abu-Arish,  of  which  he  took 
possession ;  and  in  reward  for  his  services  was  made 
governor  of  Mecca.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the 
British  authorities  in  India,  in  consequence  of  the 
depredations  committed  by  the  Wahabees  on  the 
commerce  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  made  proposals  to 
Ibrahim,  through  Captain  Sadlier,  to  co-operate  with 
the  Egyptian  army  by  sending  an  expedition  against 
El  Katif,  which  relight  produce  a  diversion  in  favour 
of  the  Turks  ;  but,  as  the  campaign  had  already  been 
brought  to  a  favourable  conclusion,  the  aid  of  an 
English  fleet  was  declined  as  unnecessary. 

It  may  appear  surprising  that  a  power  so  widely 
extended  and  so  firmly  established  as  that  of  the 
Wahabees  should  have  been  so  rapidly  overthrown. 
Saoud  had  not  only  laid  the  foundation,  but  organ- 
ized the  political  system  of  a  great  empire.  He 
would  have  made  himself  master  of  all  Arabia  had 
not  death  arrested  him  in  the  midst  of  his  conquests. 
Bagdad  and  Bussora  would  have  opened  their  gates 
to  him  ;  Syria  and  Egypt,  torn  by  jarring  factions 
and  weakened  by  revolution,  might  again  have  fallen 
an  easy  prey  to  the  hordes  of  the  desert. 

Such  was  the  splendid  legacy  which  he  bequeathed 
to  his  successor  ;  and  never,  perhaps,  had  a^iy  prince 
greater  facilities  for  securing  the  independence  of 
his  nation  than  Abdallah.  But,  unfortunately,  he 
inherited  not  the  qualities  necessary  for  following 
up  the  brilliant  career  which  his  father  had  pointed 
out  to  him.  He  was  brave  ;  but  courage  is  not  the 
only  virtue  essential  to  a  sovereign.  His  inflexible 
severity  alienated  the  aff'ections  of  his  people  ;  and 
his  want  of  military  tact  was  evinced  in  the  numer- 
ous errors  he  committed  in  the  progress  of  the  war. 
Had  he  known  to  profit  by  his  advantages,  he  might 
have  annihilated  the  Ottoman  army,  exhausted  with 


HISTORy^   OF    THE    WAHABEES.       "        305 

disease  and  fatigue  in  the  nydst  of  burning  sands, 
instead  of  being  compelled  to  sue  for  a  dishonour- 
able and  fatal  peace.  The  desertion  of  the  Bedouins 
no  doubt  weakened  his  power,  which  may  be  said 
to  have  yielded  to  the  gold  of  Ali  rather  than  to  the 
valour  of  his  troops.  But  the  influence  of  a  popular 
chief  could  have  prevented  or  counteracted  these 
seductions  ;  and  had  the  hardy  tribes  of  the  desert 
found  such  a  prince  in  Abdallah,  the  carcasses  of  the 
Turks  might  have  fed  the  eagles,  and  the  fate  of 
Arabia  been  entirely  changed.  ' 

Some  writers  lament  the  suppression  of  the  Wa- 
habees,  from  a  belief  that  the  downfall  of  Islam  was 
to  follow  the  propagation  of  their  doctrines,  and 
that  a  purer  religion  would  be  established  in  its 
stead.  These  regrets  appear  to  be  inspired  by  erro- 
neous conceptions  of  the  principles  of  this  sect, 
which  are  nothing  else  than  the  gross  and  primitive 
superstitions  of  the  Koran  enforced  with  greater 
rigour.  Their  creed  was  even  more  sanguinary  and 
intolerant  than  that  which  the  first  followers  of  Mo- 
hammed offered  to  the  nations  on  the  points  of  their 
swords.  Their  reform  extended  only  to  a  few  ab- 
surd or  scandalous  practices,  and  the  more  strict 
injunction  of  certain  moral  precepts  ;  but  they  left 
untouched  all  the  impious  and  heretical  dogmas  of 
the  Moslem  faith.  Their  chief  merit  consisted,  not 
in  their  teaching  their  countrymen  a  more  refined 
and  rational  theology,  but  in  suppressing  their  infidel 
indifference  to  all  religion  ;  in  improving  their  poli- 
ical  condition ;  and  in  subjecting  their  wild  passions 
to  the  restraint  of  law  and  justice.* 

*  It  was  the  opinion  of  Burckhardt  that  the  suppression  of  the 
Wahabees  and  the  conquest  of  Nejed  are  merely  temporary ; 
and  that  these  warlike  fanatics,  who  are  dispersed  rather  than 
subdued,  will  take  the  earliest  opportunity  to  effect  the  restora- 
tion of  their  empire.  This  of  course  must  greatly  depend  on 
the  character  of  the  future  pashas  of  Egypt ;  but  it  is  not  likely 
to  happen  in  the  reign  of  Mohammed  AU  or  his  son,  to  whom 

Cc2 


306  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 


CHAPTER  nil. 

SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

National  Character  of  the  Arabs— Their  Family  Pride—Orders 
of  Nobility— Their  Domestic  Life— Their  Tents— Furniture- 
Mode  of  Encamping — Dress — Personal  Appearance — Acute- 
ness  of  their  Senses— Sagacity  in  tracing  Footsteps— Their 
Arms— Food  and  Cookery — Manner  of  Eating— Diseases — 
Wealth   and  Industry— Marriage  —  Divorce— Education   of 

S-,  their  Children— Funerals— Modes  of  Salutation— Hospitality 
Warfare— Robbery  and  Theft— The  Blood-revenge— Amuse- 
ments—Poetry  and  Music— Learning— Medicine— Supersti- 
tions— Language— Arts-Commerce — Proposed  Steam  Route 
oy  the  Euphrates  and  the  Red  Sea— Population— Concluding 
Reflections. 

Climate,  government,  and  education  are  in  every 
country  the  great  agents  that  form  and  modify  tJie 
character  of  nations.  Nowhere  are  their  effects 
more  strikingly  exemplified  than  in  Arabia.     To  the 

the  Porte  has  ceded  by  a  recent  treaty  (May,  1833)  the  whole 
of  Syria,  including  Tripoli,  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  Jerusalem  ; 
besides  the  command  of  the  harbours  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
sacred  privilege  of  conducting  the  pilgrim-caravans.  Ibrahim, 
by  pushing  his  victories  in  the  late  Syrian  campaigns  almost  to 
the  gates  of  Constantinople,  has  acquired  fresh  laurels  as  a 
conqueror,  and  a  new  title  to  be  Sheik  el  Haram  of  Mecca. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  Bedouins,  of  whom  not  fewer 
than  5370  are  now  serving  in  the  armies  of  the  pasha,  can  have 
no  immediate  prospects  of  reasserting  their  independence.  The 
successes  of  Ibrahim  led  to  a  serious  conflict,  in  the  month  of 
June,  1832,  between  the  Turkish  and  Arab  regiments  stationed 
at  Mecca.  Of  the  former  1400  were  sabred  in  the  streets.  The 
battery  that  overlooks  the  city  was  made  to  play  upon  the 
mosque,  where  the  mutinous  Turks  had  taken  .fuge,  and  with 
such  effect,  that  the  walls  were  pierced,  one  of  the  pillars  broken 
down,  and  several  persons  killed. 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  307 

first  of  these  causes  may  be  ascribed  many  of  the 
social  virtues  for  which  the  natives  have  been  always 
distinguished ;  while  most  of  the  crimes,  vices,  and 
prejudices  by  which  they  are  degraded  are  the 
natural  fruits  of  the  two  latter.  On  the  seacoasts 
and  in  the  towns,  their  manners  have  been  corrupted 
by  commerce  and  a  free  intercourse  with  foreigners. 
Travellers,  who  have  formed  their  opinions  from 
mixing  exclusively  with  those  classes,  have  drawn  a 
very  unfavourable  picture  of  the  inhalDitants  in  gen- 
eral, as  a  nation  of  tyrants,  hypocrites,  and  deceiv- 
ers, plunged  in  a  lower  state  of  ignorance  and  de- 
bauchery than  the  most  barbarous  islanders  of  the 
South  Seas,  These  representations  are  no  doubt 
partially  true,  but  they  are  far  from  being  universally 
just,  A  longer  residence  among  them  and  better 
opportunities  of  judging  have  contributed  to  remove 
niany  erroneous  impressions  as  to  their  social  and 
domestic  habits. 

No  people  are  more  remarkable  than  the  Arabs 
for  their  spirit  of  nationality  and  family  pride.  The 
poorest  of  them  glory  in  their  birth,  and  look  with 
disdain  on  the  natives  of  other  countries.  They 
boast  of  the  accuracy  with  which  they  have  pre- 
served their  genealogies ;  yet  the  lower,  and  most 
even  of  the  middle  classes,  keep  no  register  of  their 
parentage,  and  would  often  be  at  a  loss  to  know  their 
fathers  or  grandfathers  were  it  not  regidated  by 
custom  that  the  son  frequently  joins  their  names  to 
his  own.  The  sheiks  and  sheriffs  are  the  true  aris- 
tocracy of  Arabia  ;  and  these  have  reason  to  be  vain 
of  their  ancestry,  which  some  of  them  can  trace  in 
regular  descent  from  the  days  of  Mohammed  or 
Moses.  The  oldest  nobility  in  Europe  are  but  of 
yesterday  compared  to  these  petty  princes  of  the 
desert. 

Though  the  title  of  sheik  is  the  most  ancient  and 
most  common  in  use  among  the  Arabian  grandees, 
the  sheriffs,  being  the  descendants  of  Mohammed, 


308  SOCIAL  STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

hold  the  .first  rank  in  point  of  dignity.  This  has 
arisen  doubtless  from  the  singular  veneration  in 
which  the  family  of  the  Prophet  is  held,  and  it  has 
entailed  on  his  posterity  the  double  honour  that 
always  attaches  to  splendid  descent  and  superior 
sanctity.  The  sheriflfs  are  very  numerous,  and  mul- 
tiplied over  all  Mohammedan  countries.  Whole 
villages  are  peopled  with  them  ;  and  they  are  fre- 
quently found  in  the  lowest  state  of  misery.  Still 
their  presence  commands  universal  respect;  in  a 
fray  no  arm  would  violate  their  person, — their  char- 
acter is  held  sacred,  and  furnishes  a  better  protec- 
tion for  their  property  against  thieves  than  bolts  or 
bars.  The  reason  why  these  families  are  so  numer- 
ous is  that  the  honour  is  hereditary  both  by  male 
and  female  descent.  The  son  of  a  Turk  or  Syrian  is 
ennobled  if  his  mother  can  reckon  kindred  with  Fa- 
tima.  To  this  class  belong  the  seyeds  and  mollahs ; 
but  between  these  and  the  sheriffs  there  is  this  dis- 
tinction, that  the  latter  are  constantly  devoted  to  a 
military  life,  while  the  former  engage  in  the  pursuits 
of  trade  and  science.  There  are,  besides  these,  other 
noble  families  at  Mecca,  such  as  the  Koreish  and 
muftis  of  certain  sects,  who  have  hereditary  em- 
ployment about  the  mosque,  and  for  the  retention 
of  which  they  are  obliged  to  prove  the  genuineness 
of  their  pedigree. 

In  the  domestic  life  of  the  Arabs  there  is  little  to 
attract  the  admiration  of  strangers.  Their  best 
'  houses  display  httle  exterior  magnificence,  and  are 
still  more  deficient  in  point  of  internal  accommoda- 
tion. The  tent  forms  the  cherished  home  of  the 
larger  proportion  of  the  inhabitants,  and  when  they 
remove  they  transport  their  dwellings  with  them. 
The  height  of  this  dwelling  is  generally  seven  feet, 
its  length  from  twenty-five  to  thirty,  and  its  breadth 
about  ten.  It  is  divided  into  two  apartments,  one 
for  the  men  and  the  other  for  the  women ;  and  these 
are  separated  by  a  white  woollen  carpet  of  Damas- 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  309 

cus  manufacture  drawn  across,  and  fastened  to  the 
three  middle  posts. 

The  furniture  comprises  pack-saddles,  as  well  as 
those  for  riding,  large  water-bags  made  of  tanned 
camel-skins,  goat-skins  for  milk  and  butter,  the 
little  bag  into  which  the  hair  or  wool  is  put  that  falls 
from  the  sheep  and  camels  on  the  road,  the  leather 
bucket  for  drawing  up  water  from  deep  wells,  a  cop- 
per pan,  coffee-pot,  mortar,  hand-mill,  wooden  dishes, 
the  horse's  feeding  bag,  and  the  iron  chain  which 
fastens  their  forefeet  w^hile  pasturing  about  the 
camp.  The  Arabs  seldom  allow  their  women  to  be 
seen  ;  and  when  a  stranger  is  introduced,  the  cry  of 
tarik  (or  retire)  w^arns  them  instantly  to  disappear. 
It  is  reckoned  a  breach  of  decorum  to  salute  a  lady, 
or  even  to  look  her  steadfastly  in  the  face. 

The  mode  of  encamping  differs  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. When  the  tents  are  but  few,  they  are 
pitched  in  a  circle  {dowar) ;  if  the  number  is  con- 
siderable they  extend  in  a  straight  line,  perhaps 
along  a  rivulet,  in  rows  three  or  four  deep.  The 
sheik's  is  always  on  the  side  where  danger  is  ap- 
prehended, or  where  travellers  are  expected ;  it  being 
his  particular  business  to  oppose  the  former  and  to 
honour  the  latter.  Every  chief  sticks  his  lance  into 
ground  in  front  of  his  tent,  to  which  he  ties  his 
horse  or  camel ;  the  pack-saddles  forming  the  couch 
on  which  he  and  his  guests  recline.  When  wan- 
dering in  search  of  water  or  pasture,  they  move  in 
parties  slowly  over  the  sandy  plain.  The  armed 
horsemen  ride  foremost,  as  a  reconnoitring  detach- 
ment ;  the  flocks  with  their  young  follow ;  behind 
come  the  beasts  of  burden,  loaded  with  the  women 
and  children,  tents,  baggage,  and  provision. 

The  ordinary  costume  of  the  Bedouins  is  ex- 
tremely simple,  consisting  of  a  coarse  cotton  shirt, 
over  which  is  v/orn  a  thin,  light,  white  woollen  man- 
tle {kombaz),  or  sometimes  one  of  a  coarser  kind  (the 
ebba),  striped  white  and  brown.     The  wealthy  sub- 


310  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

stitute  for  this  a  long  gown  of  silk  or  cotton  stuff. 
The  mantles  worn  by  the  sheiks  are  interwoven 
with  gold,  and  may  be  valued  at  10/.  sterling.  The 
common  abba  is  without  sleeves,  resembling  a  sack, 
with  openings  for  the  head  and  arms,  and  requires  so 
little  art  in  the  making  that  blind  tailors  earn  their 
livelihood  by  this  employment.  Public  taste,  how- 
ever, is  occasionally  more  capricious,  especially  as 
to  the  headdress,  which  is  often  expensive,  and  in 
a  hot  country  must  be  extremely  inconvenient.  A 
fashionable  Arab  will  wear  fifteen  caps  one  above 
another,  some  of  which  are  linen,  but  the  greater 
part  of  thick  cloth  or  cotton.  That  which  covers 
the  whole  is  richly  embroidered  with  gold,  and  in- 
wrought with  texts  or  passages  from  the  Koran. 
Over  all  there  is  wrapped  a  sash  or  large  piece  of 
muslin,  with  the  ends  hanging  down,  and  orna- 
mented with  silk  or  gold  fringes.  This  useless  en- 
cumbrance is  considered  a  mark  of  respect  towards 
superiors.  It  is  also  used,  as  the  beard  was  for- 
merly in  Europe,  to  indicate  literary  merit ;  and 
those  who  affect  to  be  thought  men  of  learning  dis- 
cover their  pretensions  by  the  size  of  their  turbans. 
No  part  of  oriental  costume  is  so  variable  as  this 
covering  for  the  head.  Niebuhr  has  given  illus- 
trations of  forty-eight  different  ways  of  wearing  it. 
The  Bedouins  use  a  keffie,  or  square  kerchief  of 
yellow  or  green  cotton,  with  two  corners  hanging 
down  on  each  side  to  protect  them  from  the  sun  and 
wind,  or  to  conceal  their  features  if  they  wish  to  be 
unknown.  A  few  rich  sheiks  wear  shawls  striped 
red  and  white,  of  Damascus  or  Bagdad  manufacture. 
The  Aenezes  and  some  other  tribes  do  not  use 
drawers,  which  they  consider  as  too  effeminate  for 
a  man ;  and  they  usually  walk  and  ride  barefooted, 
though  they  have  a  particular  esteem  for  yellow 
boots  and  red  shoes. 

In  Mecca  and  other  large  towns  the  winter  suit  of 
the  higher  classes  is  the  benish  or  upper  cloak,  and 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  311 

the  juble  or  under  one, — both  of  cloth  such  as  is 
worn  in  all  parts  of  Turkey.  The  rest  of  their  dress 
consists  of  a  showy  silk  gown,  tied  with  a  thin  Cash- 
mere sash,  a  white  mushn  turban,  and  yeUow  shp- 
pers.  In  summer  the  benish  is  composed  of  a  very 
slig-ht  silk  stuff  of  Indian  manufacture.  Beneath 
the  jubbe  some  wear  a  gown,  c^Me&heden,  of  white 
muslin,  without  lining  or  sleeves,  and  very  short. 
The  Meccawees  are  remarkable  for  being  cleanly  and 
tasteful  in  their  attire.  On  feast-days  and  other  public 
occasions  their  finery  is  displayed  in  the  highest  de- 
gree. The  common  shopkeeper,  who  walks  about 
the  whole  year  in  his  short  gown  with  a  napkin 
round  his  loins,  appears  in  a  pink-coloured  benish 
lined  with  satin,  a  gold-embroidered  turban,  rich  silk 
sash,  and  jambea  with  its  scabbard  ornamented  with 
gold  and  silver.  His  wives  and  children  are  decked 
in  tke  gaudiest  colours  ;  but  after  the  feast  is  over 
the  fine  suits  are  laid  aside.  At  home  in  his  disha- 
bille, the  citizen  seats  himself  near  his  projecting 
latticed  window,  holding  in  one  hand  the  long  snake 
of  his  Persian  hookah,  and  in  the  other  a  small 
square  fan  made  of  the  chippings  of  date  leaves,  with 
which  he  dri\  es  away  the  flies.  The  women's  dress 
is  generally  Indian  silk  gowns,  and  very  large  blue 
striped  trousers  reaching  down  to  the  ankles,  em- 
broidered below  wifh  silver  thread.  Over  these  they 
throw  a  sort  of  cloak  called /sa-^ra  or  mellaye,  of  black 
or  striped  silk,  w^hich  covers  the  head,  and  has  a 
graceful  eff"ect.  The  wealthy  wxar  gold  necklaces, 
bracelets,  and  silver  ankle-rings,  while  the  poorer 
classes  have  similar  trinkets  of  horn,  glass,  or  am- 
ber. A  ring  is  sometimes  passed  through  the  car- 
tilage of  the  nose,  and  hangs  down  upon  the  upper- 
hp.  The  face  is  concealed  with  a  white  or  light- 
blue  piece- of  cloth  called  3o/-A-o,  in  which  there  are 
two  holes  worked  for  the  eyes,  but  so  large  that 
nearly  the  entire  features  maybe  seen.  This  piece 
of  female  vanity,  according  to  Ah  Bey,  had  better  be 


312      SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

spared,  as  the  illusion  of  hidden  charms  is  com- 
pletely dispelled  when  a  sight  is  obtained  of  their 
lemon-coloured  complexions,  their  hollow  cheeks 
daubed  all  over  with  black  or  greenish-blue  paint, 
their  yellow  teeth,  and  their  lips  stained  of  a  red- 
dish tile-colour.  Though  custom  has  reconciled 
them  to  these  artificial  means  of  heightening  their 
beauty,  their  appearance  is  frightful  and  repulsive  to 
strangers.  It  ought  to  be  added,  however,  that  in 
general  they  have  fine  eyes,  regular  noses,  and 
handsome  persons.  The  women  at  Loheia  wear 
large  veils,  which  conceal  their  faces  so  entirely 
that  only  one  of  their  eyes  can  be  seen.  In  the  in- 
terior, females  are  less  shy  than  in  cities  ;  they  con- 
verse freely  with  strangers,  and  have  their  counte- 
nance quite  uncovered.  The  Arabs  of  the  Hauran 
use  a  coarse  white  cotton  stuff  for  their  komhaz  or 
gown,  and  have  their  keflie  tied  with  a  rope  of 
camel's  hair. 

In  ^\'inter,  the  Bedouins  throw  over  the  shirt  a 
pelisse  made  of  sheep-skins  stitched  together.  Many 
even  in  summer  wear  these  skins,  as  they  learn  from 
experience  that  thick  clothing  is  a  defence  from 
heat  as  well  as  cold.    The  dress  of  the  women  con- 
sists of  a  wide  cotton  gown  of  a  dark  colour,  blue, 
brown,  or  black,  and  on  their  heads  a  kerchief.  They 
go  barefooted  at  all  seasons,  have  the  same  affec- 
tion for  ornaments  as  their  more  polished  rivals  in 
the  city,  and  employ  similar  arts  to  increase  their 
beauty.     Silver  rings  are  much  worn  both  in  their 
ears  and  noses.      Round  their  naked  w^aists  both 
sexes  wear  from  infancy  a  leathern  girdle,  or  cord, 
consisting  of  four  or  five  thongs  twisted  together, 
which  they  adorn  with  amulets  or  pieces  of  riband. 
They  all  puncture  their  lips,  and  die  them  blue. 
Some  of  them  also  tattoo  their  cheeks,  temples, 
forehead,  breasts,  arms,  and  ankles ;  and  in  these 
practices  they  are  sometimes  imitated  by  the  men. 


A  Young  Female  of  the  Coffee  Mountains. 


Vol.  IL— D  d 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  315 

Their  eyes  and  eyelashes  they  paint  black,  with  a 
preparation  of  lead  ore  called  kohel. 

Fashion  has  a  powerful  influence  in  determining' 
the  various  modes  in  which  the  hair  and  beard  are 
worn.  Within  the  Imam  of  Sanaa's  dominions  all 
men  of  whatever  station  shave  their  heads  ;  in  other 
parts  of  Yemen  the  hair  is  carefully  preserved  and 
knotted  up  behind.  The  Aenezes  never  cut  their 
long-  black  tresses,  but  cherish  them  from  infancy 
until  they  hang  in  twisted  locks  over  their  cheeks 
do\\Ti  to  the  breast.  Everybody  without  exception 
wears  the  beard  of  its  natural  length  ;  being  con- 
sidered as  the  ensign  of  honour  and  dignity,  it  is 
reckoned  disgraceful  to  appear  without  it.  Shaving 
is  often  prescribed  as  a  penance  for  some  fault,  and 
it  is  one  of  the  severest  punishments  that  can  be 
inflicted.  By  threatening  this  chastisement,  Saoud 
kept  in  order  many  a  rebellious  sheik.  A  favourite 
mare  which  he  wished  to  purchase,  belonging  to  a 
chief  of  the  Beni  Shammar,  and  valued  at  2500  dol- 
lars (546/.),  v/as  yielded  up  by  the  reluctant  owner 
the  moment  th«  barber  produced  his  razor.  Some 
old  men  still  die  their  beards  red  ;  but  this  practice 
is  generally  disapproved. 

In  personal  appearance  the  Arabs  are  of  the 
middle  size,  lean  and  athletic.  Their  complexion 
is  brown,  their  eyes  and  hair  dark.  When  young 
they  have  a  mild  but  expressive  countenance  ;  in 
advanced  age  their  aspect  is  truly  venerable.  The 
Aenezes  are  rather  diminutive  in  their  stature,  few 
of  them  being  above  five  feet  two  or  three  inches 
in  height ;  but  their  features  are  good,  their  persons 
extremely  well  formed,  and  not  so  meager  or  slight 
as  some  travellers  have  represented.  Their  deep- 
set  but  lively  dark  eyes  sparkle  from  under  their 
bushy  black  eyebrows  with  a  fire  unknown  in  our 
northern  climes. 

From  living  constantly  in  the  open  air  the  Arabs 
acquire  a  remarkable  acuteness  in  all  their  senses. 


316      SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

Their  powers  of  vision  and  of  hearing  improve  by 
continual  exercise  ;  and  on  their  vast  plains  they 
can  descry  distant  objects  far  beyond  the  ken  of  a 
less  practised  eye.    Their  sense  of  smelling,  too,  is 
extremely  nice  ;  hence  their  dislike  to  houses  and 
tow^ns,  where  they  are  disgnsted  with  the  nauseous 
exhalations  which  dense  collections  of  people  always 
generate.     One  of  the  most  singular  faculties  they 
possess  is  the  athr^  or  the  power  of  distinguishing 
the  footsteps  of  men  and  beasts  on  the  sand,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  American  Indians  discover  im- 
pressions made  upon  the  grass.     This  art  is  carried 
to  a  perfection  that  appears  almost  supernatural. 
From  inspecting  the  footstep  an  Arab  can  tell  whe- 
ther the  individual  belonged  to  his  own  or  some 
neighbouring  tribe,  and  thus  he  is  able  to  judge  if 
he  be  a  stranger  or  a  friend.     He  likewise  knows 
from  the  faintness  or  depth  of  the  impression  whe- 
ther the  person  carried  a  load  or  not ;  whether  he 
passed  the  same  day  or  several  days  before.    From 
examining  the  intervals  between  the  steps,  he  judges 
whether  or  not  he  was  fatigued,  as  the  pace  becomes 
then   more   irregular    and   the   intervals  unequal ; 
hence  he  calculates  the  chances  of  overtaking  him. 
Every  Arab  can  distinguish  the  footmarks  of  his 
own  camels  from  those  of  his  neighbours  ;  he  knows 
whether  the   animal  was  pasturing  or  loaded,  or 
mounted  by  one  or  more  persons ;  and  can  often 
discover,  from  marks  in  the  sand,  certain  defects  or 
peculiarities  of  formation  that  serve  him  as  a  clew 
to  ascertain  the  owner.      This   sagacity  becomes 
extremely  useful  in  the  pursuit  of  fugitives,  or  in 
searching  after  stolen  cattle.     Instances  occur  of 
camels  being  traced  by  their  masters  to  the  residence 
of  the  thief,  at  the  distance  of  five  or  six  days'  jour- 
ney.    A  Bedouin  shepherd  can  track  his  own  camel 
in  a  sandy  valley  where  thousands  of  other  foot- 
steps cross  the  road  in  all  directions,  and  sometimes 
he  can  tell  the  name  of  every  one  that  has  passed 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  317 

in  the  course  of  the  morning-.  Many  secret  trans- 
actions are  brought  to  hght  by  this  curious  art :  an 
oftender  can  scarcely  hope  to  escape  detection  in 
any  clandestine  proceeding,  as  every  footstep  may 
be  a  witness  against  him,  by  recording  his  guilt  on 
the  public  road,  and  in  characters  which  he  that 
mns  may  read.  Of  their  remarkable  acuteness  in 
hearing,  some  wonderful  but  well-attested  anecdotes 
are  told  of  those  who  act  as  pilots  in  the  Red  Sea. 
They  know  very  nearly  the  time  when  ships  from 
India  arrive ;  and  going  down  to  the  water's  edge 
every  night  and  morning,  they  lay  their  ear  close  to 
the  surface  for  three  or  four  minutes  ;  and  if  the  ship 
is  not  more  than  2  or  2h  degrees  distant  (120  or  150 
miles)  they  can  hear  the  report  of  the  signal-gun, 
or  feel  the  ground  shake,  upon  which  they  imme- 
diately set  off  with  their  pilot-boat.* 

The  Arabs  are  thoroughly  inured  to  fatigue,  and 
can  endure  hunger  and  thirst  to  a  surprising  degree. 
They  sometimes  travel  five   days  without  tasting 
water,  and  can  discover  a  brook  or  a  natural  spring 
by  examining  the  soil  and  plants  in  the  environs. 
They  are  dexterous  horsemen,  swift  of  foot,  expert 
in  handling  their  arms,  and  reckoned  good  marks- 
men since  they  became  familiar  with  the  use  of  the 
musket.      Their  most   common  arms   are   lances, 
sabres,  matchlocks,  pistols,  and  daggers.    The  shep- 
herds have  slings,  with  which  they  throw  stones 
with  great  precision.     The  lance  is  made  of  wood 
or  bamboo,  twelve  feet  long,  with  an  iron  or  steel 
pointed  head.     Occasionally  they  are  covered  with 
workmanship  in  gold  and  silver,  but  are  often  with- 
out any  ornament  except  two  balls  or  tufts  of  black 
ostrich-feathers  placed  near  the  top.     In  striking, 

*  Captain  Newland  mentions  an  instance  of  a  ship  which, 
after  firing  the  morning  gun,  ran  95  miles  by  the  log  ;  and  when 
the  pilot  came  on  board  in  the  evening,  he  declared  he  had  heard 
the  signal  at  sunrise,  on  the  faith  of  which  he  had  put  off  witk 
his  boat. — Philosoph.  Transact,  vol.  Ixii. 

Dd2 


318  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

they  balance  it  for  some  time  over  their  head,  and 
thrust  forwards,  or  back%yards  if  hard  pressed  by  an 
enemy.  Should  a  horseman  be  without  a  lance,  he 
arms  himself  with  a  club  or  mace,  which  is  made 
either  wholly  of  iron  or  with  a  wooden  handle.  The 
foot-soldiers  sometimes  carry  a  small  round  target, 
made  of  the  wild-ox  hide,  and  covered  with  iron 
bars.  Some  wear  iron  caps  and  coats-of-mail,  which 
either  cover  the  whole  body  to  the  knees,  hke  a  long 
gown,  or  reach  only  to  the  waist. 

The  hardy  and  athletic  frame  of  the  Bedouins  is 

to  be  ascribed  in  part  to  their  abstemious  habits. 

They  are  models  of  sobriety,  and  never  indulge  in 

luxuries  except  on  some  festive  occasion,  or  on  the 

arrival  of  a  stranger.     Their  usual  articles  of  food 

are  rice,  pulse,  dates,  milk,  butter,  and  flour.     The 

common  people  eat  bread  made  of  dhourra,  which 

is  coarse  and  insipid.     When  they  have  no  gridiron 

they  roll  the  dough  into  balls  and  cook  it  among 

embers.     They  generally  eat  their  bread  while  hot 

and  only  half-baked.     Though  not  strangers  to  the 

invention  of  mills,  they  grind  their  flour  with  the 

hand,  or  merely  bruise  the  grain  between  two  stones. 

The  daily  and  universal  dish  of  the  Aenezes  is  the 

ayesh^  which  is  flour  and  sour  camels'  milk  made  into 

a  paste  and  boiled.     The  hourgoul  is  wheat  boiled 

with  some  leaven  and  then  dried  in  the  sun ;  and  in 

this  state  it  is  preserved  for  the  whole  year.    Bread 

is  used  at  breakfast,  which  they  bake  in  round  cakes 

either  upon  gridirons  or  on  heated  stones,  over  which 

the  dough  is  spread  and  immediately  covered  with 

glowing  ashes  ;  sometimes  the  fire  is  put  into  glazed 

earthen  pots,  and  the  paste  spread  over  the  outside. 

In  some  districts  they  have  abundance  of  poultry 

and  garden-stuffs.   Butter  is  used  to  excess.   It  is  an 

ingredient  in  every  dish ;  all  their  food  swims  in  it ; 

and  they  frequently  swallow  a  whole  cupful  before 

breakfast.     The  operation  of  churning  is  performed 

in  a  goat-skin  bag,  which  is  tied  to  the  tent-pole  or 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  319 

the  branch  of  a  tree,  and  moved  constantly  back- 
wards and  forwards  until  coagulation  takes  place. 
Animal  food  is  less  used  than  vegetable,  as  it  is  not 
reckoned  so  wholesome  in  hot  countries.  Camels' 
flesh  is  rarely  eaten ;  it  is  more  esteemed  in  winter 
than  in  summer,  and  that  of  the  female  is  preferred. 
If  a  man  of  rank  happens  to  be  a  visiter,  a  kid  or  a 
lamb  is  prepared :  a  guest  of  less  distinction  is  treated 
with  coffee,  or  bread  and  melted  butter.  Sometimes 
an  entire  sheep  is  roasted  in  a  hole,  dug  in  the  sand 
and  lined  with  heated  stones.  Upon  these  the  flesh 
is  laid,  and  then  covered  closely  up  with  cinders 
and  the  wet  skin  of  the  animal.  In  an  hour  and  a 
half  the  meat  is  cooked ;  and  as  it  loses  none  of  its 
juices  it  has  an  excellent  flavour.  It  is  customary 
in  the  desert,  when  a  sheep  or  goat  is  killed,  to 
eat  the  liver  and  kidneys  raw,  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  salt. 

The  Arabs  drink  little  during  meals ;  but  when 
camels'  milk  is  plentiful  it  is  handed  round  after 
dinner.  In  their  style  of  eating,  they  are  slovenly 
and  disagreeable,  if  tested  by  the  standard  of  Eu- 
ropeans. They  tear  the  meat  with  their  fingers,  if 
not  cut  into  small  pieces  before  it  is  set  down.  A 
wooden  bowl  containing  the  melted  grease  of  the 
animal  is  placed  in  the  middle,  into  which  every 
morsel  is  dipped.  They  thrust  the  whole  hand  into 
the  dish  at  once,  which  is  soon  emptied  of  its  con- 
tents, as  they  eat  with  great  avidity.  The  food  being 
always  very  hot,  it  requires  some  practice  to  enable 
a  stranger  to  keep  pace  with  the  company  and  yet 
avoid  burning  the  fingers.  They  have  only  two 
meals,  breakfast  in  the  morning,  and  dinner  or  sup- 
per at  sunset.  They  wash  their  hands  just  before 
eating,  but  seldom  after ;  merely  licking  the  grease 
off  their  fingers,  rubbing  them  on  the  scabbards  of 
their  swords  or  a  corner  of  the  tent-covering.  Among 
the  better  classes  table-napkins  are  used,  or  a  long 
linen  cloth  which  is  spread  under  their  knees.    The 


320  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

women  and  slaves  eat  what  is  left  by  the  men  ;  and 
it  is  seldom  they  have  the  good  fortune  to  taste  any 
thing  but  the  fragments  and  refuse  of  the  table.  It 
is  accounted  a  mark  of  respect  towards  superiors 
not  to  eat  out  of  the  same  dish. 

From  their  regular  and  temperate  life  the  Arabs 
are  subject  to  few  diseases.    Leprosy  seems  always 
to  have  been  an  endemic  in  that  country.     Of  the 
three  varieties,  two  are  reckoned  more  disgusting 
than  dangerous  ;  but  the  third  is  infectious,  andx^ery 
malignant.   The  ravages  of  the  small-pox  have  long 
been  arrested  by  artificial  means ;  as  the  practice 
of  inoculation  has  been  in  use  among  the  Bedouins 
from  time  immemorial.   ]\Iothers  perform  this  opera- 
tion on  their  children,  by  opening  the  skin  of  the 
arm  with  the  prickle  of  a  thorn  or  the  point  of  a 
needle  charged  with  infected  matter.     There   are 
many  tribes,  however,  where  this  art  is  unknown, 
and  in  consequence  whole  encampments  have  fallen 
victims  to  this  unsparing  malady.     Vaccination  has 
been  lately  introduced,  and  met  with  a  favourable 
reception.     Attacks  of  the  Guinea-worm  (the  Vctia 
Medinensis)  are  common  in  Yemen ;  and  supposed  to 
originate  from  the  use  of  putrid  waters  in  which  the 
eggs  of  the  insect  have  been  deposited.     The  dis- 
order is  not  fatal  if  the  person  affected  can  extract  the 
>vorm,  which  is  slender  as  a  thread,  and  two  or  three 
feet  long,  without  breaking  it.    This  is  done  by  roll- 
ing it  gradually  on  a  small  bit  of  wood  as  it  comes 
out  of  the  skin.    Toothache  is  rare  ;  but  ophthalmic 
disorders  are  very  common.  •  Jaundice,  bilious  com- 
plaints, and  agues  or  intermittent  fevers  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  though  seldom  fatal.    At  Medina, 
Burckhardt  reckoned  the  mortality  at  about  1200 
deaths  annually,  which  may  be  considered  a  large 
proportion  for  a  population  of  10,000  or  12,000.   The 
plague  is  the  most  terrible  scourge  of  Arabia,  though 
it  is  less  destructive  there  than  in  some  other  East- 
ern countries.    Notwithstanding  the  belief  of  the 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  321 

Hejazees,  that  the  Almighty  has  exchided  it  from 
the  holy  territory,  it  made  its  appearance  in  1816. 
At  Yenibo,  forty  or  fifty  persons  expired  daily ;  while 
at  Jidda  the  proportion  was  as  high  as  two  huritired 
and  fifty.  The  Arabs  seldom  employ  medicine  for 
it ;  but,  though  predestinarians,  the  common  belief 
in  Europe  is  erroneous  that  supposes  they  use  no 
precautionary  measures.  Burckhardt  states  that 
many  of  the  townsmen  fled  to  the  desert ;  alleging 
as  an  excuse,  that  although  the  distemper  was  a 
messenger  from  Heaven,  sent  to  call  them  to  a  bet- 
ter world,  yet  being  conscious  of  their  unworthiness, 
and  that  they  did  not  merit  this  special  mark  of  grace, 
they  thought  it  more  advisable  to  decline  it  for  the 
present,  and  make  their  escape  from  the  town.  The 
Yembawees  have  a  superstitious  custom  of  leading 
a  she-camel  through  the  town,  covered  with  feathers, 
balls,  and  all  sorts  of  ornaments,  after  which  it  is 
slaughtered,  and  the  flesh  throwTi  to  the  dogs.  By 
this  process  they  hope  to  get  quit  of  the  malady  at 
once,  as  they  imagine  that  it  has  been  concentrated 
in  the  body  of.  the  devoted  animal.  The  cholera 
morbus,  now  fearfully  familiar  to  British  ears,  is  no 
stranger  in  Arabia.  At  Mecca,  in  the  month  of  May, 
1831,  it  raged  with  the  greatest  violence  ;  having  car- 
ried off"  above  5500  persons  in  the  course  of  twenty 
or  thirty  days.  Of  50,000  pilgrims  assembled  that 
year  nearly  one-half  are  said  to  have  perished.  The 
dead  were  buried  in  their  clothes  indiscriminately, 
in  large  trenches  dug  for  the  purpose,  Medina, 
Yembo,  and  Suez  were  visited  at  the  same  time  by 
this  dreadful  epidemic. 

An  Arab's  property  consists  chiefly  in  his  flocks  ; 
the  profits  of  which  enable  him  to  procure  the  ne- 
cessary provisions  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  occa- 
sionally a  new  suit  of  clothes  for  his  wife  and 
daughters.  No  family  can  exist  without  one  camel 
at  least ;  a  man  who  has  but  ten  is  reckoned  poor, — 
thirty  or  forty  place  him  in  easy  circumstances,  and 


322       SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

he  who  possesses  sixty  is  rich.  The  annual  expend- 
iture for  an  Arab  possessed  of  moderate  affluence 
is  calculated  by  Burckhardt  at  between  35/.  and  40/. 
sterling.  The  lower  classes  spend  less  in  propor- 
tion. Wealth  in  such  a  fluctuating  state  of  society 
is  extremely  precarious,  and  the  most  rapid  changes 
of  fortune  are  daily  experienced. 

Domestic  industry  is  little  known  among  the  Be- 
douins ;  the  husband  enjoys  his  amusements,  w^hile 
all  the  household  cares  devolve  on  his  females.  This 
degradation  of  the  weaker  sex  is  common  to  the 
Arabs  with  most  other  Asiatic  nations.  Women 
are  regarded  as  beings  much  inferior  to  men,  and  to 
them  exclusively  all  the  labour  and  menial  offices  in 
the  tent  are  assigned.  In  these  employments  there 
is  sometimes  a  curious  inversion  of  character, — 
women  work  at  the  loom,  while  the  men  milk  the 
cattle  and  handle  the  distaff,  without  regarding 
these  effeminate  duties  as  in  the  least  derogatory  to 
their  masculine  dignity.  The  loom,  called  nutou,  is 
extremely  simple,  being  merely  two  sticks  fixed  into 
the  ground  with  a  third  placed  across  them. 

The  Arabs  practise  polygamy  in  common  with 
most  other  Eastern  nations  ;  but  in  general  they  are 
content  with  one  wife,  and  rarely  avail  themselves 
of  the  legal  privilege  of  marrying  four.  The  rich 
espouse  as  many  wives  and  keep  as  many  concu- 
bines as  they  can  maintain ;  though  this  luxury  is 
too  expensive  to  be  generally  adopted.  But  those 
who  restrict  themselves  to  one  wife  make  amends 
for  this  self-denial  by  indulging  in  variety,  or  enter- 
taining at  the  same  time  a  number  of  female  slaves. 

In  courtship  the  Arabs  often  display  a  great  deal 
of  gallantry ;  for  the  constraint  to  which  their 
women  are  subjected  does  not  altogether  prevent 
intrigues.  But  the  opportunities  of  the  lover's  meet- 
ing or  seeing  his  mistress  are  more  rare  ;  and  the 
youth  who  is  bold  enough  to  trespass  on  the  sanc- 
tuary of  the  meharrem  finds  his  path  encompassed 


SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS.       323 

with  perils,  battles,  and  death.  The  desert  is  the 
genuine  theatre  of  those  keen  passions  depicted  in 
the  Arabian  tales,  and  perhaps  the  Bedouins  are  the 
only  people  in  the  East  that  can  with  justice  be  en- 
titled true  lovers.  While  Europeans  merely  lan- 
guish and  sigh,  and  while  the  townsmen  compose 
amorous  verses,  the  Bedouins  sometimes  cut  and 
slash  their  arms  Avith  knives  to  show  the  violence 
of  their  affections.  The  pastoral  life  is  favourable 
to  forming  acquaintances ;  and  there  are  occasions 
when  the  youth  of  both  sexes  mingle  in  parties  to 
sing  and  dance  in  the  open  space  before  or  behind 
the  tents. 

The  marriage  ceremony  in  general  is  very  simple. 
— Negotiations  commence  with  the  father  of  the 
maiden,  who  usually  consults  the  wishes  of  his 
daughter,  and  if  her  consent  is  gained  the  match 
takes  place.  The  marriage-day  being  appointed 
perhaps  five  or  six  days  after,  the  bridegroom  comes 
with  a  lamb  in  his  arms  to  the  tent  of  his  betrothed, 
and  there  cuts  the  animal's  throat  before  witnesses, 
and  as  soon  as  the  blood  falls  upon  the  ground  the 
ceremony  is  regarded  as  completed.  It  is  accom- 
panied AA-ith  feasting  and  singing ;  all  the  guests 
present  must  eat  bread  and  meat ;  for  this  is  a  cir- 
cumstance absolutely  necessary  on  such  occasions. 
The  form  of  betrothing  differs  in  different  tribes, 
sometimes  the  friend  of  the  lover,  holding  the  girl's 
father  by  the  hand,  merely  says  before  witnesses, 
"  You  declare  that  you  give  your  daughter  as  wife 

to ."     Among  the  Bedouins  of  Sinai  the  father 

of  the  bride  gives  to  the  suitor  a  twig  of  a  tree  or 
shrub,  or  something  green,  which  he  sticks  in  his 
turban  and  wears  for  three  days,  to  show  that  he 
has  taken  a  virgin  in  matrimony.  The  betrothed  is 
seldom  made  acquainted  with  the  change  that  is  to 
take  place  in  her  condition.  On  returning  home  in 
the  evening  with  the  cattle,  she  is  met  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  camp  by  her  future  spouse  and  a 


324      SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

couple  of  his  young  friends,  Miio  carry  her  by  force 
to  her  father's  tent.     If  she  entertains  any  suspicion 
of  their  designs  she  defends  herself  with  stones,  and 
often  inflicts  wounds  on  the  assailants  though  she 
has  no   dishke   to  the  lover;    for  the  more   she 
struggles,  bites,  kicks,  cries,  and  strikes,  the  more 
she  is  applauded  ever  after  by  her  own  companions. 
Sometimes  she  escapes  to  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains, and  several  days  elapse  before  the  bridegroom 
can  find  her ;  her  female  friends,  meantime,  being 
apprized  of  her  hiding-place,  furnish  her  with  pro- 
visions.    When  brought  to  her  father's  tent  she  is 
placed  in  the  women's  apartment,  where  one  of  the 
young  men  immediately  throws  over  her  an  abba  in 
the  name  of  her  future  husband ;  and  this  is  often 
the  first  time  she  learns  who  the  person  is  to  whom 
she  is  betrothed.     She  is  then  di'essed  by  her  mo- 
ther and  female  relations  in  her  wedding-suit,  which 
is  provided  by  the  bridegroom  ;  and  being  mounted 
on  a  camel  ornamented  with  tassels  and  shreds  of 
cloth,  she  is  conducted,  still  screaming  and  strug- 
ghng  in  the  most  unruly  manner,  three  times  round 
the  tent,  while  her  companions  utter  loud  exclama- 
tions.    If  the  husband  belong  to  a  distant  camp  the 
women  accompany  her ;  and  during  the  procession 
decency  obliges  her  to  cry  and  sob  most  bitterly. 
These   lamentations   and  struggles   continue  after 
marriage  ;  and  sometimes  she  repeats  her  flight  to 
the  mountains,  refusing  to  return  until  she  is  found 
out,  or  is  even  far  advanced  in  pregnancy. 

Marriages  are  generally  solemnized  on  the  Friday 
evenings,  and  the  contracts  are  drawn  up  by  the 
cadi ;  if  the  bride  be  a  widow  or  a  divorced  woman 
it  is  attended  with  little  ceremony  or  rejoicing.  This 
sort  of  connexion  is  always  reckoned  ill-omened ; 
no  resistance  is  made, — no  feast  takes  place, — no 
guest  will  eat  of  the  nuptial  bread;  for  thirty  days 
the  husband  will  not  taste  any  provisions  belonging 
to  his  wife,  and  visiters  when  they  come  to  drink 
coffee  bring  their  own  cups,  because  to  touch  any 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  325 

vessel  belonging  to  the  newly-married  widow  would 
be  considered  the  sure  road  to  perdition.  Sheiks 
and  rich  citizens  display  more  splendour  in  their 
dresses  and  entertainments.  The  bride  is  decked 
out  in  the  finest  attire,  perfumed  with  essences,  and 
every  part  of  her  body  painted  with  figures  of 
flowers,  trees,  and  houses,  as  well  as  antelopes  and 
other  animals. 

Instead  of  receiving  a  marriage  portion,  the  hus- 
band pays  for  his  wife, — the  sum  varies  according 
to  rank  and  circumstances.  Among  the  Arabs  of 
Sinai  it  is  from  five  to  ten  dollars ;  but  sometimes 
thirty  if  the  girl  is  handsome  and  well  connected. 
At  Mecca  the  price  paid  for  respectable  maidens  is 
from  40  to  300  dollars  (8^.  15.?.  to  65/.  12^.  6d.) ;  and 
on  the  borders  of  Syria  young  men  obtain  their  mas- 
ters' daughters  by  serving  a  number  of  years.  Part 
of  the  money  only  is  paid  down,  the  rest  standing 
over  as  a  kind  of  debt,  or  as  a  security  in  case  of 
divorce.  The  price  of  a  widow  is  never  more  than 
half,  generally  but  a  third,  of  what  is  paid  for  a 
virgin. 

The  sacred  tie  of  marriage  has  but  a  slender  hold 
on  the  Arabs,  and  may  be  dissolved  on  slight  occa- 
sions at  the  pleasure  of  the  husband.  This  facility 
of  separation  relaxes  morality,  though  it  reflects  no 
dishonour  on  the  woman  or  her  family.  She  may 
be  repudiated  three  or  four  times,  and  yet  free  from 
any  stain  or  imputation  on  her  character.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  Bedouin  before  attaining  the  age 
of  forty  or  forty-five  to  have  had  fifty  wives.  If  the 
woman  depart  of  her  own  accord  she  receives  no- 
thing, and  even  forfeits  the  unpaid  portion  of  her 
dowry ;  but  if  she  is  turned  away  without  any  valid 
reason  or  proof  of  misconduct,  she  is  entitled  to  a 
small  sum  of  money,  a  camel,  a  goat,  a  copper 
boiler  and  handmill,  with  some  other  articles  of 
kitchen  furniture.  This  operates  as  a  check  upon 
the  evil,  and  makes  the  customs  in  some  degree  cor- 

VoL.  IL— E  e 


326  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

rect  the  laws.  The  form  consists  of  two  words, 
"  Ent  taleka  /"  (Thou  art  divorced) :  when  once  pro- 
nounced it  cannot  be  revoked ;  but  it  does  not  pre- 
vent the  man  from  again  marrying- the  same  person, 
though  she  may  in  the  interval  have  had  several 
other  husbands.  Many  instances  occur  of  conjugal 
fidelity  ;  and  a  Bedouin  has  been  known  in  a  fit  of 
distraction  to  commit  suicide  on  seeing  his  wife  give 
her  hand  to  a  second  bridegroom. 

The  law  also  allows  females  a  kind  of  divorce.  If 
ill  used,  or  not  happy,  they  may  fly  for  refuge  to  their 
father's  tent,  and  their  husbands  have  no  right  to 
reclaim  them.  The  extreme  jealousy  of  the  Arabs 
leads  them  to  speak  but  seldom  or  indirectly  on  this 
subject ;  and  instead  of  saying  "  my  wife"  or  "  my 
daughters,"  they  say  "  my  house,"  and  "  those  at 
home."  In  domestic  quarrels  the  loquacity  of  the 
spouse  very  often  triumphs  over  the  just  cause  of 
her  partner ;  and  rather  than  see  himself  overpow- 
ered by  so  contemptible  an  instrument,  and  exposed 
to  ridicule  in  the  presence  of  his  neighbours,  he  pro- 
nounces in  a  moment  of  irritation  the  fatal  "  Ent 
taleka !"  which  is  always  applauded  by  the  specta- 
tors. These  broils  are  the  most  frequent  cause  of 
divorces,  which  are  perhaps  to  be  ascribed  rather  to 
the  unruly  temper  of  these  wild  sons  of  the  desert 
than  to  any  want  of  conjugal  feeling. 

Children  are  brought  up  in  the  most  hardy  man- 
ner ;  the  name  is  given  immediately  on  their  birth, 
and  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven  the  boys  undergo  the 
ceremony  of  circumcision.  This  is  always  cele- 
brated with  feasting  and  rejoicing ;  and  it  is  gene 
rally  arranged  by  those  who  have  families  in  a  camp 
that  the  operation  shall  take  place  on  the  same  day. 
On  these  occasions  the  boys  are  dressed  in  the  rich- 
est stuffs,  set  upon  fine  horses  highly  adorned,  and 
are  carried  in  public  procession  with  drums  beating 
before  them ;  the  men  exhibit  equestrian  feats  and 
warlike  evolutions :  the  common  people  have  sham 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS  327 

fights  and  other  buffooneries;  while  the  young 
women  join  in  the  song  and  the  dance,  taking  care 
by  removing  their  veils  to  allow  their  lovers  a  hasty 
glance  of  their  beauty  as  they  pass. 

Funerals  in  Arabia  are  attended  with  certain 
peculiar  circumstances.  Some  tribes  bury  with  the 
dead  man  his  sword,  turban,  and  girdle.  From  the 
scarcity  of  linen  the  Bedouins  not  unfrequently 
wrap  the  body  in  an  abba,  which  serves  as  a  wind- 
ing-sheet. Women,  but  not  men,  wear  mourning. 
Females  are  hired  on  these  occasions,  and  paid  a 
small  sum  by  the  hour,  to  howl  in  the  most  heart- 
rending accents  :  sometimes  they  dance  before  the 
house  of  the  deceased  with  sticks  and  lances  in  their 
hands,  tearing  their  arms,  faces,  and  hair,  and  be- 
having like  furies.  Medina,  according  to  Burck- 
hardt,  is  the  only  place  wiiere  this  absurd  custom  is 
not  practised.  The  female  relatives  of  the  family 
accompany  the  bier  through  the  streets  dressed  in 
black  ;  and,  as  a  further  demonstration  of  their  grief, 
they  stain  their  hands  and  feet  with  blue  indigo,  which 
they  suffer  to  remain  for  eight  days.  During  all 
that  time  they  abstain  from  milk,  alleging  that  its 
white  colour  but  ill  accords  with  the  gloom  of  their 
minds. 

Though  rude  in  manners  and  fierce  in  their  gene- 
ral character,  the  Arabs  are  not  without  civility  and 
politeness.  Their  usual  salutation  is  the  Salaam 
aleikum  (Peace  be  with  you).  Shaking  hands  and 
kissing  after  a  long  absence  are  everjrvvhere  prac- 
tised, and  sometimes  it  is  customary  to  quote  a  pas- 
sage of  the  Koran.  The  Bedouins  know  nothing  of 
those  numerous  court  phrases  and  ceremonious  ex- 
pressions current  in  the  towns.  They  simply  wish 
a  good  morning  when  they  meet  their  friends  upon 
the  road,  or  a  farewell  when  they  depart.  When  an 
Egyptian  hails  an  acquaintance,  he  says,  "  May 
your  day  be  white  ;"  and  there  is  absolutely  no  other 
reply  but  "  May  yours  be  like  milk."    These  studied 


328  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

and  superfluous  compliments  a  Bedouin  would  con- 
sider at  once  ridiculous  and  ill-bred.  They  attach 
no  indelicacy  to  the  disgusting  practice  of  eructa- 
tion after  meals  ;  but  they  are  shocked  beyond  mea- 
sure at  an  involuntary  accident  which  is  the  natural 
consequence  of  indigestion  on  certain  articles  of  diet. 
An  habitual  offender  in  this  way  is  deemed  unwor- 
thy of  being  admitted  as  a  witness  before  the  cadi ; 
and  some  for  this  reason  have  been  obliged  to  betake 
themselves  to  voluntary  banishment.  In  towns 
there  is  a  greater  ostentation  of  politeness  : — "  Wel- 
come !"  says  the  obsequious  shopkeeper  of  Mecca 
to  his  foreign  customer ;  "  a  thousand  times  wel- 
come !  you  are  the  guest  of  the  holy  city ;  my  whole 
property  is  at  your  disposal !"  In  Yemen,  persons 
who  value  themselves  on  their  good  breeding  use 
many  compliments.  In  ordinary  visits  pipes  and 
coffee  are  always  presented.  Sometimes  the  beards 
and  clothes  of  the  guests  are  sprinkled  with  rose- 
water  and  perfumes.  Men  salute  each  other  by 
kissing  the  beard  or  hand,  and  women  by  kissing  the 
forehead,  chin,  and  both  cheeks.  Even  in  quarrel- 
ling among  themselves  the  Arabs  do  not  use  the  ill 
names  and  scurrilous  language  so  frequently  heard 
in  the  mouths  of  more  polished  nations. 

Hospitality,  the  ancient  and  hereditary  virtue  of 
the  nation,  is  still  exercised  in  all  its  primitive 
cordiality.  A  hungry  Bedouin  always  divides  his 
scanty  meal  with  a  still  more  hungry  wanderer.  If 
a  stranger  be  seeft  coming  from  afar  towards  the 
camp,  he  is  reckoned  the  guest  of  the  first  person 
that  descries  him  ;  and  for  this  honour  there  is  often 
a  generous  rivalry  which  leads  to  serious  alterca- 
tions. When  he  alights,  the  friendly  carpet  and  the 
ready  meal  are  spread  for  him.  So  long  as  he  re- 
mains his  life  and  property  are  perfectly  secure  ; 
and  should  a  robbery  occur,  the  host,  if  he  possess 
the  means,  will  indemnify  him  for  whatever  loss  he 
may  sustain  while  under  his  protection.     His  person 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  329 

is  sacred,  and  he  may  trust  the  fidelity  of  his  enter- 
tainer the  moment  he  has  eaten  bread  and  salt  under 
his  roof.  An  Arab  considers  no  emergency  so  ur- 
gent or  embarrassing  as  to  palliate  the  neglect,  much 
less  the  violation,  of  that  social  virtue.  He  has 
been  heard  to  declare,  that  if  his  enemy  should  pre- 
sent himself  at  the  door  of  his  tent  carrying  the 
head  of  his  own  son,  it  would  not  exclude  him  from  a 
hospitable  reception. 

These  generous  dispositions  have  been  subjected 
to  certain  regulations  ;  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
in  some  instances  they  proceed  less  from  goodness 
of  heart  than  from  vanity  or  the  fear  of  reproach  ; 
for  the  greatest  insult  that  can  be  offered  to  a  Be- 
douin is  to  tell  him  that  he  does  not  treat  his  guests 
well.  The  hours  of  hospitality  are  numbered, — 
three  days  and  eight  hours  are  the  term,  after  which 
a  stranger  ceases  to  be  a  ward,  and  becomes  a  sim- 
ple visiter.  He  is  not  dismissed ;  but  if  he  prolong 
his  stay  he  is  expected  to  assist  in  the  domestic 
business  of  the  tent— in  fetching  water,  milking  the 
camel,  or  feeding  the  horse.  Should  he  decline 
these  menial  offices  he  may  still  remain,  but  he  will 
be  censured  for  ingratitude  ;  or  he  may  go  to  an- 
other tent,  where  he  will  receive  a  fresh  welcome ; 
and  if  he  has  a  distant  journey  to  perform,  he  may, 
by  changing  his  residence  every  third  or  fourth  day, 
be  comfortably  entertained  until  he  reach  his  des- 
tination. 

It  is  a  received  custom  inevery  part  of  the  Desert, 
that  a  woman  may  entertain  strangers  in  the  ab- 
sence of  her  husband ;  when  this  is  not  permitted, 
some  male  relation  does  the  honours  of  the  table. 
In  certain  parts  of  Nejed,  a  guest  is  welcomed  by 
pouring  on  his  head  a  cup  of  melted  butter.  Among 
the  Azir  tribes  a  practice  exists  not  very  consist- 
ent with  our  ideas  of  female  honour :  when  a 
stranger  arrives,  he  is  required  to  be  the  companion 
of  his  hostess  for  the  night,  whatever  be  her  age  or 

Ee2 


330  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

condition  ;  and  it  depends  upon  his  rendering-  him- 
self agreeable,  whether  he  is  to  be  honourably 
treated  or  dismissed  with  disgrace.  This  custom 
the  Wahabees  abolished ;  but  on  a  representation 
being  made  bj'^  the  tribe  to  Abdelazeez,  of  the  mis- 
fortunes that  had  befallen  them  for  having  abandoned 
the  good  old  practice  of  their  forefathers,  permission 
was  granted  to  honour  their  guests  as  before.  The 
established  laws  of  the  Desert  sanction  manners  that 
to  European  nations  must  appear  extravagant  and 
unnatural.  But  the  influx  of  foreigners,  and  espe- 
cially the  gold  of  Mohammed  Ali,  have  had  a  perni- 
cious effect  on  the  virtues  of  the  Bedouins. 

Another  singular  institution  is  that  of  the  wasy^  or 
guardianship.  An  Arab  may,  in  the  prime  of  life, 
request  a  friend  to  act  as  guardian  to  his  children. 
If  the  trust  is  accepted,  the  friend  is  solemnly  in- 
stalled in  his  office  ;  and  one  family  is  thus  con- 
stituted the  hereditary  protectors  of  another.  To 
the  weak,  such  as  minors,  women,  and  old  men,  this 
practice  affords  some  security,  hovvever  imperfect, 
against  the  oppressions  of  the  strong.  It  is  observed 
by  all  the  Arabs  of  Nejed,  but  not  generally  tlirough- 
out  the  Desert ;  and  affords  another  instance  of  those 
peculiar  ties,  domestic  as  well  as  political,  by  which 
a  fierce  and  v/arlike  community  are  held  together 
and  protected  amid  the  lawless  ravages  occasioned 
by  their  own  dissensions. 

'  That  the  Arabs  are  brave,  and  capable  of  display- 
ing exalted  courage,  was  confirmed  by  numerous 
exploits  in  the  Turkish  campaign.  Examples  might 
easily  be  adduced  of  the  most  heroic  personal  val- 
our. The  Wahabee  soldiers  fought  with  despera- 
tion, encouraged  by  the  songs  of  the  female  war- 
riors. It  was  the  custom  for  the  favourite  wife  of 
the  sheik,  on  the  day  of  battle,  to  ride  in  front  on  a 
swift  dromedary  splendidly  caparisoned  ;  and  on  oc- 
casions of  extreme  importance  she  had  her  legs  tied 
under  the  belly  of  the  animal — a  signal  to  the  troops 


SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS.      331 

that  they  must  either  conquer  or  perish  by  her  side. 
She  formed  the  rallying-point  when  the  combat  was 
at  the  hottest,  and  to  kill  or  take  her  captive  was 
reckoned  the  proudest  achievement  of  the  enemy. 
When  an  Arab  is  hotly  pursued,  he  may  save  his 
life  by  throwing  himself  from  his  steed  and  begg-ing 
for  mercy ;  but  he  does  it  at  the  expense  of  his  hon- 
our, and  forfeits  his  mare  and  his  clothes.  If  he 
refuses  to  yield  after  repeatedly  hearing  the  cry  of 
"  Howel !  howel .'"  (Get  down  !)  the  pursuer  instantly 
stabs  him  with  his  lance.  Some  tribes  use  battle- 
banners  ornamented  with  ostrich-feathers ;  but  these 
are  never  displayed  except  in  important  actions ; 
and  their  loss  is  regarded  as  a  signal  of  defeat.  All 
Bedouin  tribes  without  exception  have  their  agyd, 
who  acts  as  commander-in-chief;  for  it  is  a  remark- 
able circumstance  in  the  policy  of  the  Desert,  that, 
during  a  campaign  in  actual  warfare,  the  authority 
of  the  sheik  is  completely  set  aside,  and  the  soldiers 
are  wholly  under  the  control  of  the  agyd.  This 
person  is  esteemed  as  a  kind  of  augur  or  saint ;  he 
often  decides  the  operations  of  the  war  by  his 
dreams,  visions,  or  prognostications,  and  announces 
the  lucky  or  unlucky  day  for  attack.  His  office  is 
hereditary;  but  he  possesses  no  more  coercive 
power  than  the  sheik,  arid  his  authority  ceases 
whenever  the  combatants  return  to  their  homes. 
This  curious  institution  doubtless  was  intended  to 
check  any  increase  of  power  in  the  person  of  the 
chief  of  the  tribe,  by  rendering  it  difficult  for  him  to 
engage  in  feuds  merely  from  private  motives. 

In  the  Desert  the  character  of  the  soldier  passes 
by  an  easy  transition  into  that  of  the  brigand.  The 
Arabs  may  be  styled  a  nation  of  robbers  (harami) ; 
but  they  are  far  from  attaching  to  this  practice  any 
ideas  of  criminality  or  disgrace.  They  consider  the 
profession  as  honourable,  and  one  of  the  most  flat- 
tering titles  that  could  be  conferred  on  a  youthful 
hero.    They  rob,  indiscriminately,  enemies,  friends, 


332  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

and  neighbours ;  and  these  acts  are  daily  committed 
in  their  own  tent  without  entaiUng-  any  permanent 
disgrace  on  the  offender.  The  defenceless  travel- 
ler is  waylaid,  seized,  and  stripped  of  every  thing ; 
but  his  life  is  not  taken  unless  he  resist,  or  shed  the 
blood  of  a  Bedouin.  There  are  many  instances  of 
their  extreme  ignorance  in  appreciating  the  value 
of  their  booty.  A  peasant  has  been  known  to  boil 
a  bag  of  pearls,  mistaking  them  for  rice,  and  after- 
ward throw  them  away  as  useless. 

The  Bedouins  have  reduced  robbery  to  a  science, 
and  digested  its  various  branches  into  a  complete 
and  regular  system.  In  distant  excursions  every 
horseman  chooses  a  companion  (zammal),  and  both 
are  mounted  on  a  young  and  strong  camel,  carrying 
a  provision  of  food  and  water,  that  the  mare  may 
be  fresh  and  vigorous  at  the  moment  of  attack.  If 
the  expedition  is  to  be  on  foot,  each  of  the  party 
takes  a  small  stock  of  flour,  salt,  and  water.  They 
clothe  themselves  in  rags,  to  make  their  ransom 
easier  if  they  should  be  taken.  In  this  guise  they 
approach  the  devoted  camp  under  cloud  of  night, 
and  when  all  are  fast  asleep.  One  of  them  endeav- 
ours to  irritate  the  watch-dogs  ;  when  they  attack 
him,  he  flies  and  artfully  draws  them  off,  leaving 
the  premises  unprotected.  The  harami  then  cuts 
the  cords  that  fasten  the  legs  of  the  camels,  when 
they  instantly  rise  from  their  kneeling  posture,  and 
>  walk  away,  as  all  unloaded  camels  do,  without  the 
least  noise.  To  quicken  their  pace,  the  tails  of  the 
foremost  or  strongest  are  twisted,  and  the  rest  fol- 
low at  the  same  trot.  The  third  actor  in  the  rob- 
bery keeps  watch  at  the  tent-door  with  a  heavy 
bludgeon,  to  knock  down  such  of  the  inmates  as  may 
venture  to  interfere.  In  this  manner  fifty  camels 
are  often  stolen,  and  driven  by  forced  marches  to  a 
safe  distance  during  the  night.  An  extra  share  of 
the  prey  is  always  allowed  to  these  three  principal 
adventurers. 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  333 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  robbers  are  sur- 
rounded and  seized ;  and  the  mode  of  treating  their 
prisoners  affords  a  curious  illustration  of  the  influ- 
ence which  custom,  handed  down  through  many 
generations,  still  exercises  over  the  minds  of  these 
fierce  barbarians.  It  is  an  established  usage  in  the 
Desert,  that  if  any  person  who  is  in  actual  danger 
from  another  can  touch  a  third  person,  or  any  in- 
animate thing  which  he  has  in  his  hands,  or  with 
which  he  is  in  contact ;  or  if  he  can  touch  him  by 
spitting,  or  throwing  a  stone  at  him,  and  at  the  same 
time  exclaim,  "  I  am  thy  protected  !"  the  individual 
is  bound  to  grant  him  the  protection  he  demands. 
This  law  or  point  of  honour  is  called  the  dakheil ; 
and  however  absurd  or  capricious,  it  seems  naturally 
to  arise  out  of  those  scenes  of  violence,  the  ferocity 
of  which  it  is  calculated  to  soften.  A  robber  de- 
tected in  the  act  of  plundering  is  always  anxious  to 
avail  himself  of  the  privileges  of  this  artificial  con 
vention;  while  the  inmates  of  the  tent  are  equally 
desirous  to  prevent  him.  The  person  who  first 
seizes  the  prisoner  demands  on  what  business  he  is 
come.  "  I  came  to  rob  :  God  has  overthrown  me ;" 
is  the  common  answer.  The  captor  (rabat)  then 
binds  him  hand  and  foot,  and  beats  him  with  a  club, 
until  he  exclaims,  Yeneffa  !  "  I  renounce  !"  (namely, 
the  benefit  of  any  protector).  But  this  renunciation 
being  only  valid  for  one  day,  the  prisoner  (rabiet)  is 
secured  in  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  with  his  feet 
chained  to  the  earth,  his  hands  tied,  and  his  twisted 
hair  fastened  to  two  stakes  at  both  sides  of  his 
head.  This  temporary  grave  is  covered  with  tent- 
poles,  corn-sacks,  and  other  heavy  articles, — a 
small  aperture  only  being  left  through  w^hich  he 
may  breathe.  Here  he  is  detained,  and  every  en- 
deavour used  to  extort  from  him  the  highest  possible 
ransom. 

Still  the  buried  captive  does  not  despair ;  and  cir- 
cumstances sometimes  favour  his  escape.     If  he 


334  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

can  contrive  through  the  aperture  to  spit  upon  a 
man  or  a  child,  or  receive  from  their  hand  the 
smallest  morsel  of  food,  he  claims  the  rights  of  the 
dakheil.  To  obtain  his  release  gives  rise  to  many- 
adventurous  intrigues  and  ingenious  stratagems. 
His  mother  or  his  sister  will  often  enter  the  camp 
in  the  garb  of  a  beggar,  or  during  night,  and  having 
put  the  end  of  a  worsted  thread  in  his  mouth,  she 
retires,  still  unwinding  the  clew,  to  some  neighbour- 
ing tent,  and  places  the  other  end  in  the  hand  of  the 
owner,  who  by  this  means  is  guided  to  the  prisoner, 
and  claims  him  as  his  "  protected."  The  right  of 
freedom  is  at  once  allowed ;  the  thongs  which  tied 
his  hair  are  cut,  his  fetters  are  struck  off,  and  he  is 
entertained  by  the  captor  as  his  guest,  with  all  the 
honours  of  Arabian  hospitality.  To  avoid  paying  a 
ransom,  a  prisoner  will  often  remain  six  months 
under  this  rigorous  custody,  always  conceahng  his 
real  name,  and  giving  himself  out  for  a  poor  mendi- 
cant. He  is,  however,  generally  recognised,  and 
obliged  to  purchase  his  liberty  at  the  expense  of  all 
his  property  in  horses,  camels,  sheep,  tents,  pro- 
visions, and  baggage. 

Should  the  robbers  fail  in  their  enterprise,  and 
meet,  when  returning,  a  hostile  party  of  the  tribe 
they  intended  to  pillage,  their  declaration,  "  We 
have  eaten  salt  in  such  a  tent,"  is  a  passport  that 
ensures  them  a  safe  journey. 

The  Arabs  are  the  most  adroit  and  audacious 
thieves  in  the  world  ;  their  address,  indeed,  in  this 
art  is  proverbial.  They  spring  behind  the  horse- 
man, seize  him  with  one  hand  by  the  throat,  and 
with  the  other  rifle  him  of  his  money.  They  stole 
the  swords  from  the  sides  of  the  French  officers  in 
Egypt,  and  even  purloined  clothes  and  valuable  arti- 
cles from  under  their  heads  while  sleeping.  These 
acts  of  rapacity  they  always  palliate  by  using  a  soft- 
ened and  delicate  language  when  relating  them. 
Instead  of  saying,  I  robbed  a  man  of  this  or  that 


SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS.      335 

article,  they  say,  "  I  gained  it."  They  even  pretend 
a  sort  of  kindred  or  relationship  between  themselves 
and  the  victim  they  plunder.  "  Undress  thyself," 
exclaims  the  brigand  of  the  Desert,  as  he  rides  furi- 
ously upon  the  wayfaring  stranger  ;  "  thy  aunt' 
(meaning  his  own  wife)  "  is  without  a  garment !" 
This  license  they  regard  as  a  sort  of  birthright  or 
national  prerogative.  If  they  are  reproved  for  their 
depredations,  "  You  forget  that  I  am  an  Arab"  is  al- 
ways the  reply;  which  is  spoken  with  a  tone  and 
expression  of  countenance  that  shows  how  little  the 
haughty  marauder  is  affected  by  the  supposed  op- 
probrium. But  the  chivalry  of  pillage,  hke  that  of 
hospitality,  has  been  impaired  by  their  intercourse 
with  strangers.  The  honourable  asylum  of  the  tent 
has  often  been  violated,  and  the  sacred  shield  of  the 
dakheil  has  not  always  screened  the  unfortunate 
who  sought  its  protection. 

The  natural  jealousy  and  fiery  temperament  of  the 
Arabs  have  always  proved  a  source  of  the  most  im- 
placable enmity  among  themselves.  They  betray 
the  quickest  sensibility  to  any  affront  or  injury; 
and  instances  might  be  multiplied  where  a  con- 
temptuous word,  an  indecent  action,  or  the  most 
trifling  violation  of  etiquette,  can  only  be  expiated 
by  the  blood  of  the  offender.  If  one  sheik  say  to 
another,  "  Thy  bonnet  is  dirty,"  or  "  The  wrong 
side  of  thy  turban  is  out,"  it  is  considered  a  mortal 
off"ence.  To  spit  on  the  beard  of  another,  even  ac- 
cidentally, is  an  insult  scarcely  to  be  forgiven. 
Murder  is  the  deepest  injury  that  can  be  committed. 
The  Arab  code  regulates  the  revenge  for  blood 
(called  thar)  by  the  nicest  distinctions ;  and  it  is  per- 
haps owing  to  this  salutary  institution  more  than  to 
any  other,  that  the  Avarlike  tribes  of  the  Desert  have 
been  prevented  from  exterminating  each  other. 

It  is  a  universal  law  among  them,  that  he  who 

sheds  blood  owes  on  that  account  blood  to  the  fam- 

ly  of  the  slain  person ;  and  this  debt  may  be  required, 


336      SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

not  only  from  the  actual  murderer,  but  from  all  his 
relations.  The  right  of  the  thar  is  limited  within 
certain  degrees  of  kindred.  In  the  case  of  a  slain 
parent,  his  lineal  descendants  to  the  fifth  generation 
inherit  the  sacred  duty  of  revenging  his  death  on  a 
corresponding  series  of  descendants  on  the  other 
side.  This  right  is  never  lost  by  prescription,  but 
devolves  on  both  sides  to  the  latest  posterity.  If 
one  death  is  simply  avenged  by  another,  the  account 
is  considered  to  be  cleared  ;  but  if  two  of  the  assas- 
sin's family  be  killed  by  the  relatives  of  the  deceased, 
the  former  retaliates.  Though  murder  may  be  ex- 
piated by  fine  or  confiscation,  it  depends  upon  the 
next  relations  of  the  slain  to  accept  or  reject  the 
penalty.  If  the  offer  is  deemed  unsatisfactory,  the 
homicide,  and  all  his  kin  comprised  within  the  law 
of  vengeance,  make  their  escape  to  some  friendly 
tribe.  A  sacred  custom  allows  the  fugitives  three 
days  and  four  hours,  during  which  their  enemies 
abstain  from  the  pursuit :  the  exiles  are  permitted 
to  return  so  soon  as  a  reconciliation  can  be  ef- 
fected. 

The  dye,  or  fine  for  a  murdered  man,  varies  among 
the  different  tribes  from  1000  to  500  piastres  (50/.  to 
25/.),  and  the  sum  is  often  made  up  by  contributions 
in  money  or  cattle  from  the  friends  of  the  guilty 
person,  who  are  generally  liberal  with  their  assist- 
ance on  such  occasions.  The  Beni  Harb  in  Hejaz 
fix  the  price  of  blood  at  800  dollars  (175/.).  Among 
the  Aenezes  it  is  rated  at  fifty  she-camels,  one 
riding  camel,  a  mare,  a  black  slave,  a  coat-of-mail, 
and  a  gun.  Tlie  quality  of  these  articles  is  not 
much  regarded,  and  it  is  seldom  they  are  all  de- 
manded, as  the  wives  or  daughters  of  the  slayer 
petition  earnestly  for  some  abatement.  The  matter 
being  finally  settled,  a  she-camel  is  brought  to  the 
tent  of  the  adversary  and  there  killed,  that  blood 
may  be  expiated  by  blood.  The  parties,  now  re- 
conciled, feast  upon  the  flesh  of  the  animal ;  and  at 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE   ARABS.  337 

parting  the  homicide  flourishes  a  white  handkercliief 
on  his  lance,  as  a  pubUc  notification  that  he  is  "  free 
from  blood."  This  mode  of  arrangement  is  not 
common  among  the  more  wealthy  and  independent 
tribes.  Most  of  the  great  sheiks  regard  it  as  shame- 
ful to  compromise  in  any  degree  for  the  slaughter 
of  their  relations. 

Amid  the  continual  hostilities  in  which  the  Arabs 
are  involved,  debts  of  blood  are  frequently  incurred, 
when  the  slaughter  is  accompanied  with  treachery, 
or  contrary  to  the  law  of  nations.  "When  a  tribe 
violates  the  rights  of  war  by  killing  their  enemies  as 
they  lie  wounded  on  the  field,  the  adversary  retal- 
iates by  killing  double  the  number  with  the  same 
circumstances  of  cruelty.  However  revolting  this 
policy  may  appear,  an  Arab  would  be  censured  were 
he  not  to  follow  the  general  practice.* 

The  amusements  of  the  Arabs  are  comparatively 
few, — chess,  draughts,  and  mangela  are  the  only 
games  they  play  ;  the  latter  consists  of  a  wooden 
table  with  a  dozen  holes,  into  which  two  players 
drop  so  many  little  stones,  beans,  or  shells.  The 
vacant  unvaried  life  which  they  lead,  and  the  mo- 
notonous scenery  amid  which  they  dwell,  must 
often  render  existence  irksome.  It  is  to  relieve 
this  weariness  and  want  of  novelty  that  they  have 
recourse  to  tobacco,  kaad,  hashish,  and  other  intoxi- 
cating stimulants.  Smoking  is  universal  among  all 
classes,  notwithstanding  the  warmth  of  the  cli- 
mate and  the  natural  dryness  of  their  constitution. 
Persons  of  opulence  and  fashion  always  carry  with 
them  a  box  filled  with  odoriferous  wood, — a  bit  of 
which,  when  put  into  the  pipe,  communicates  to 

*  Hence  we  may  extenuate  the  slaughter  of  the  captive  kings 
(who  were  Bedouin  sheiks)  by  the  Israelites,  as  being  dictated 
less  by  a  wanton  desire  of  bloodshed  than  by  the  necessity  of 
adhering  to  ttie  usages  of  the  land  where  they  dwelt ;  a  derelic- 
tion from  which  must  have  diminished  the  respect  in  which 
thev  were  held  by  their  neighbours. — Judges,  chap.  viii. 
Vol.  II.— F  f 


338      SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

the  tobacco  a  fragrant  smell  and  a  very  agreeable 
taste.  Throwing  the  jereed  is  a  kind  of  rude 
tournament  which  they  frequently  practise.  This 
is  a  blunt  spear,  made  of  heavy  wood,  about  a 
yard  long  and  the  thickness  of  a  mopstick.  The 
object  of  the  game,  in  which  they  evince  the  most 
astonishing  dexterity,  is  for  one  party  to  pursue 
and  the  other  to  fly,  and  try  to  elude  being  struck 
with  the  weapon.  Sometimes  they  amuse  them- 
selves with  sham-fights ;  and  nothing  can  be  more 
picturesque  than  to  see  a  group  of  wild  men  hud- 
dled together  in  the  greatest  apparent  confusion, 
with  drawn  swords  and  couched  lances.  The  more 
domestic  pastimes  are  dancing,  singing,  and  story- 
teUiiig,  for  which  they  have  a  singular  passion,  and 
which  fill  up  all  their  leisure  hours.  There  is  a 
species  of  song  common  all  over  the  Desert,  in  which 
the  youths  of  both  sexes  join  in  the  chorus,  accom- 
panying it  with  clapping  of  hands  and  various  mo- 
tions of  the  body.  It  is  called  the  mesamer,  and  is 
the  only  opportunity  which  the  lover  has  of  serenad- 
ing his  mistress  ;  the  verses  are  often  composed  ex- 
tempore, and  relate  to  the  beauty  and  qualities  of 
the  beloved  object.  They  have  war-songs,  called 
kadou,  in  praise  of  their  chiefs,  and  chants  to  enliven 
their  camels;  for  it  is  well  known  that  that  animal 
never  moves  with  so  much  ease  as  when  he  hears 
his  master  sing.*-  When  an  Aeneze  recites  verses 
or  ancient  poetry,  he  accompanies  his  voice  with 
the  rehaba,  a  kind  of  guitar,  the  only  musical  instru- 
ment used  in  the  Desert.  Some  tribes  are  more 
famous   than   others  for   their   poetical  and  vocal 

*  Of  the  Asamer,  or  Camel-driver's  Song,  Burckhardt  gives 
the  following  specimen  : — "  Lord  preserve  them  from  all  threat- 
ening dangers  !     Let  their  lirnbs  be  pillars  of  iron  I" 

In  their  amatory  songs  the  lover  sometimes  expresses  his 
passion  in  epithets  that  sound  rather  oddly  in  European  ears: — 
"O,  Ghalia!  if  my  father  were  a  jackass,  I  would  sell  him  to 
purchase  Ghalia !" 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  339 

talents.  The  people  of  Jof  sing  among  the  tents  of 
the  Aenezes  for  a  trifling  remuneration;  and  in  towns 
there  are  regular  professors  of  the  art,  who  attend 
at  the  coffee-houses  and  lend  their  aid  on  festive 
occasions.  A  common  entertainment  among:  the 
Bedouins  is  the  reciting  of  tales  after  the  manner 
of  the  Arabian  Nights. 

Notwithstanding  the  natural  abilities  of  this  peo- 
ple, the  arts  and  sciences  are  neither  cultivated  ^lor 
encouraged.  The  literary  splendours  of  the  caliph- 
ate have  long  been  quenched.  Except  Abulfeda,  in 
whom  the  sun  of  Arabian  learning  appears  to  have 
set,  no  historian,  philosopher,  or  writer  of  any  ce- 
lebrity, has  risen  to  dissipate  the  gloom  with  which 
the  Tartars  in  the  thirteenth  century  overspread  the 
East  under  the  banners  of  Zingis  Khan.  In  almost 
every  mosque  there  is  a  school,  having  a  founda- 
tion for  the  support  of  teachers  and  the  instruc- 
tion of  poor  scholars  in  the  common  elements  of 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  In  large  towns 
there  are  academies,  colleges,  and  other  seminaries 
of  education,  in  which  astronomy,  astrology,  medi- 
cine, and  some  other  sciences  are  taught ;  but,  from 
the  want  of  books  and  competent  masters,  extremely 
little  progress  is  made.  The  principal  employment 
among  men  of  letters  is  the  interpretation  of  the 
Koran  and  the  study  of  ancient  Mohammedan  his- 
tory. All  the  Bedouins  throughout  Arabia  are  en- 
tirely ignorant  of  letters.  The  Wahabee  chief  took 
.pains  to  instruct  them,  by  establishing  schools  in 
every  villaiSfe  of  Nejed,  and  obliging  parents  to  su- 
perintend the  education  of  their  children.  Deraiah 
was  made  an  attractive  seat  for  learned  ulemas,  by 
collecting  valuable  libraries  from  all  parts  of  the 
country ;  but,  in  spite  of  every  effort,  these  warlike 
tribes  still  remain,  as  might  be  expected,  a  most 
illiterate  race.  Among  a  people  sp  superstitious  as 
the  Arabs  no  science  is  so  much  cultivated  as  astrol- 
ogy, which  is  held  in  high  repute.      Though  the 


340  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

Koran  expressly  forbids  the  prying  into  futurity  by 
any  form  of  divination,  yet  a  Moslem  seldom  con- 
cludes a  bargain  without  consulting  the  stars. 

In  a  country  where  there  are  so  few  patients,  it 
cannot  be  expected  that  the  healing  art  should  be 
much  studied,  or  held  in  great  esteem.  The  com- 
mon practitioners  know  little  more  than  the  use  of 
simples,  and  the  technical  terms,  such  as  they  find 
them  in  the  books  of  Avicenna.  Physicians  are 
obliged  to  act  as  chymists,  apothecaries,  surgeons, 
farriers,  and  cattle-doctors  ;  and  yet,  with  all  this 
variety  of  employments,  they  can  scarcely  earn  a 
livelihood.  If  the  sick  man  die  they  get  no  reward ; 
and  this  custom  has  taught  them  to  use  many  petty 
and  disgraceful  artifices  to  obtain  payment  before- 
hand. There  is  not  a  single  individual  of  this  pro- 
fession in  the  whole  of  Nejed.  The  natives  cure 
themselves,  and  their  mode  of  treatment  is  suffi- 
ciently rude.  They  heal  sabre-wounds  by  applying 
raw  flesh  taken  from  a  camel  newly  killed.  In 
bowel-complaints  they  have  recourse  to  senna.  For 
headache,  colic,  and  sore  eyes,  the  most  approved 
remedy  is  a  red-hot  iron.  In  cases  of  rheumatism  the 
patient  is  rubbed  with  warm  oil  or  the  fat  of  mut- 
ton ;  in  dropsical  complaints  the  water  is  drawn  off 
by  means  of  setons  in  the  back.  Toothache  is  some- 
times cured  by  inhaling  the  smoke  of  a  certain 
plant ;  and  the  bite  of  venomous  serpents  by  suck- 
ing out  the  poison.  Blood-letting  is  performed 
with  a  common  knife,  and  the  lower  classes  some- 
times scarify  their  legs,  being  of  opinion  that  this  has 
a  tendency  to  improve  their  strength.  From  the 
same  persuasion  the  inhabitants  of  Yemen  anoint 
their  bodies  with  oil,  which  protects  them  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  by  closing  the  pores  of  the  skin 
is  supposed  to  check  the  debilitating  effects  of  too 
copious  perspiration.  The  Arabs  have  many  family 
nostrums,  and  are  implicit  believers  in  the  efficacy 
of  charms  and  other  mystic  arts.  No  species  of  know- 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  341 

ledge  is  more  highly  venerated  than  that  of  the  occult 
sciences,  which  afford  a  maintenance  to  a  vast 
number  of  quacks  and  impudent  pretenders.  The 
science  of  Ism  Allah  (or  Name  of  God),  enables  the 
possessor  to  discover  what  is  passing  in  his  absence, 
to  expel  evil  spirits,  cure  diseases,  and  dispose  of 
the  winds  and  seasons  as  he  chooses.  Those  who 
have  advanced  far  in  this  study  pretend  to  calm 
tempests  at  sea  by  the  rules  of  art,  or  say  their 
prayers  at  noon  in  Mecca,  without  stirring  from  their 
own  houses  in  Aden  or  Bagdad.  The  Simta  is  not 
quite  so  subhme  a  science,  as  it  teaches  merely  the 
feats  and  illusions  of  jugglers.  Dervises  and  mol- 
lahs  practise  it,  and  appear  to  the  astonished  spec- 
tators to  pierce  their  bodies  with  lances,  strike 
sharp-pointed  instruments  into  their  eyes,  or  leap 
from  the  roofs  of  houses  upon  a  pole  shod  with  iron, 
which  seems  to  run  through  their  body,  while  they 
are  carried  like  spitted  victims  about  the  streets. 
The  Kurra  is  the  art  of  composing  billets  or  amu- 
lets, which  secure  the  wearer  from  the  power  of 
enchantments  and  all  sorts  of  accidents.  They  are 
also  employed  to  give  cattle  an  appetite  for  food, 
and  clear  houses  from  flies  or  other  vermin.  The 
practice  of  fortune-telling,  which  they  call  ramie, 
is  very  common.  The  natives  of  Oman  are  pecu- 
liarly skilled  in  sorcery  {sihr) ;  they  are  inferior, 
however,  to  the  witches  and  wizards  of  Europe,  as 
they  know  nothing  about  the  art  of  riding  through  the 
air  on  broomsticks,  saihng  to  India  in  cockle-shells, 
or  holding  nocturnal  revelries  in  their  mosques, 
under  the  visible  presidency  of  Satan. 

The  Arabs  pay  great  attention  to  their  language, 
which  they  speak  and  write  with  the  utmost  care. 
No  tongue,  perhaps,  is  diversified  by  so  many  dia- 
lects: the  pronunciation  in  Yemen  differs  from  that 
of  Tehama ;  and  both  are  distinct  from  the  Bedouin 
phraseology.    It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose, 

Ff2 


342  SOCIAL   STATE    OF    THE   ARABS. 

as  Niebuhr  and  Michaelis  have  done,  that  these 
dialects  differ  as  widely  as  the  Spanish  or  Italian 
does  from  the  Latin.  Burckhardt,  who  had  the  best 
opportunity  of  judging,  says,  that  notwithstanding 
the  vast  extent  of  country  in  which  the  language 
prevails,  whoever  has  learned  one  dialect  will  easily 
understand  all  the  rest.  A  ccording  to  this  traveller, 
it  is  in  the  Desert  where  the  purest  Arabic  is  spoken. 
The  Bedouins,  though  they  have  different  idioms, 
are  remarkable  for  the  grammatical  accuracy  as 
well  as  the  elegance  of  their  expressions.  Next  to 
them  are  the  Meccawees  and  natives  of  Hejaz,  whose 
language  approaches  nearer  to  the  old  written  dialect 
than  that  of  any  other  district.  The  inhabitants  of 
Bagdad  and  Sanaa,  and  the  Yemenees  in  general, 
speak  with  purity,  but  have  a  harsh  accent.  At 
Cairo  the  pronunciation  is  worse  ;  and  it  gradually 
degenerates  among  the  Libyan  and  Syrian  Arabs. 
After  them  come  the  tribes  on  the  Barbary  coast, — 
at  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Algiers  ;  and,  lastly,  the  natives 
of  Fez  and  Morocco,  whose  rough  articulation  is 
considered  the  extreme  point  from  the  pure  Bedouin 
standard ;  yet  this  difference  is  not  greater,  perhaps, 
than  between  the  spoken  language  of  England  and 
Scotland.  All  the  Arabs  pay  much  attention  to  pen- 
manship, though  there  is  great  diversity  in  their  style 
of  writing.  The  several  countries  have  also  their 
peculiar  method  of  folding  letters.  In  Hejaz  they 
are  sealed  with  gum-arabic,  and  a  small  vessel  filled 
for  the  purpose  is  suspended  near  the  gate  of  every 
khan  or  pubhc-house.  Wax  is  never  used,  as  the 
heat  prevents  it  from  retaining  the  impression. 

In  the  mechanical  arts  the  Arabs  are  extremely 
deficient.  The  Bedouins  know  little  else  than  the 
tanning  of  leather  and  the  weaving  of  coarse  fabrics. 
They  have  a  few  blacksmiths  and  saddlers  ;  but  all 
handicraft  occupations  are  considered  degrading. 
There  is  only  one  watchmaker  at  Jidda,  and  not  a 


SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS.      343 

single  shoemaker  in  Hejaz.  In  Yemen  there  are 
workers  in  glass,  gold,  and  silver ;  but  the  artificers 
in  the  precious  metals  are  all  Jews  and  Banians. 

The  want  of  home  manufactures  obliges  the  na- 
tives to  supply  their  markets  by  means  of  foreign 
trade.  Though  their  ports  have  long  lost  their 
celebrity  as  the  grand  entrepdts  for  the  commodities 
of  the  East,  they  still  continue  to  enjoy  a  portion 
of  the  commerce  between  India  and  Europe.  Jidda 
has  become  the  principal  emporium  of  the  Arabian 
trade.  It  is  perhaps  the  wealthiest  town  of  the 
same  extent  in  the  Turkish  dominions ;  hence  its 
name,  which  means  "  rich,"  is  well  bestowed.  A 
few  years  ago  it  employed  about  250  ships  in  the 
Red  Sea.  The  two  main  branches  of  its  commerce 
are  coffee  and  Indian  produce.  In  May  the  annual 
fleets  from  Calcutta,  Surat,  and  Bombay  make 
their  appearance,  bringing  different  kinds  of  goods, 
— Cashmere  shawls,  cocoanuts,  rice,  sugar,  drugs 
of  all  sorts,  china  and  hardware,  pipes,  glass  beads, 
rosaries,  mirrors,  and  cards.  These  commodities 
are  mostly  sold  for  cash  to  India  merchants,  some 
of  whom  possess  capital  to  the  amount  of  150,000^. 
•or  200,000Z.  sterling ;  while  several  inferior  houses 
Ihave  capitals  of  40,000/.  or  50,000/.  Sales  of  entire 
•cargoes  are  often  made  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour, 
and  the  money  paid  down  next  day.  Trade  is  there 
carried  on  chiefly  by  barter,  or  by  cash  transactions. 
Credit  is  with  difficulty  obtained  ;  hence  no  Arabian 
merchant  can  contract  debts  which  he  is  unable  to 
pay,  and  consequently  there  are  no  mercantile  fail- 
ures in  speculations  such  as  daily  occur  in  Europe. 
From  Jidda  the  India  goods  are  sent  to  Suez  and 
Cairo,  whence  they  are  dispersed  over  Egypt  and 
the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  returns  from 
these  countries  are  made  either  in  dollars  or  sequins, 
or  in  produce,  such  as  wheat  and  barley,  for  which 
Arabia  depends  on  Egypt;  an  inferior  sort  of  to- 
bacco, which  is  called  tambak;   Bedouin  cloaks, 


344  SOCIAL   STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

coarse  Turkish  carpets,  cotton  quilts,  linen  for  shirts, 
red  and  yellow  slippers,  and  other  articles  of  dress  ; 
besides  a  variety  of  commodities  which  are  not 
manufactured  in  Arabia.  Ships  laden  with  coffee 
are  constantly  arriving  from  Mocha,  and  their  car- 
goes are  generally  converted  into  dollars.  This 
branch  of  trade  suffered,  when  the  Mocha  coffee  was 
supplanted,  in  the  markets  of  European  Turkey, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Syria,  by  that  produced  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies ;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it 
will  revive  under  the  auspices  of  Mohammed  Ali, 
who  may  be  said  to  command  the  entire  commerce 
of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  now  that  he  has  become  the 
independent  sovereign  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  With 
this  view  he  has  already  proposed  to  augment  his 
navy ;  to  construct  a  canal  from  Suez  to  the  Nile  ; 
to  establish  regular  marts  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast ;  and  open  a  communication  between  the 
Orontes  and  the  Euphrates.  Should  these  mighty 
projects  be  carried  into  effect,  a  few  years  may  be- 
hold a  total  revolution  in  the  mercantile  intercourse 
between  the  nations  of  the  East  and  the  West.  The 
annual  exports  of  coffee  at  present,  from  Jidda, 
Mocha,  Hodeida,  and  other  contiguous  ports,  is 
estimated  at  12,000  tons.  The  duties  on  the  best 
are  100  per  cent.,  and  fully  150  per  cent,  on  the 
inferior  sorts.  Independently  of  coffee,  the  export- 
trade  of  Mocha  is  very  considerable  in  gum-arabic, 
myrrh,  and  frankincense.  Muscat  carries  on  a  val- 
uable trade  with  India  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its 
inhabitants  are  reputed  excellent  seamen. 

There  is  one  circumstance  connected  with  the 
commerce  of  Arabia  that  deserves  notice,  from  the 
attention  which  it  has  recently  excited  in  this  coun- 
try; we  mean  the  communication  with  India  by 
steam  conveyance.  Two  routes  have  been  proposed, 
both  of  which  are  practicable,  but  attended  with 
obstacles  that  it  may  be  difficult  to  overcome.  One 
of  these  is  by  the  Persian  Gulf  along  the  Euphrates 


Miles. 

Days. 

2300 

15 

800 

4 

1349 

12 

1587 

8 

31 

SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  345 

to  Bir  or  Beles,  and  thence  across  the  Desert  to  the 
Mediterranean  at  Scanderoon,  or  the  mouth  of  the 
Orontes,  a  distance  of  sixty-seven  miles.  Captain 
Chesney,  who  surveyed  that  celebrated  river,  con- 
sidered it  navigable  for  steamers  as  high  as  Bir ; 
and  that  a  constant  supply  of  fuel  might  be  found  in 
the  wood,  charcoal,  bitumen,  and  naphtha,  of  which 
abundance  is  to  be  had  throughout  the  whole  line. 
The  distances  and  time  necessary  to  accomplish 
this  route  he  estimates  thus  : — 

From  Falmouth  to  Malta,        ... 

—  Malta  to  Scanderoon,         ... 

—  Scanderoon  to  Bussora, 

—  Bussora  to  Bombay,  .        .        - 
Necessary  or  incidental  delays, 

6036        42i 

The  other  route  is  by  the  Red  Sea,  tlie  advantages 
and  practicability  of  which  have  been  advocated  by 
Captain  Head.  The  only  physical  point  on  which 
there  seems  to  be  any  doubt  or  difference  of  opinion 
is  the  overland  conveyance  between  Egypt  and  the 
Arabian  Gulf.  Suez  and  Cosseir  are  certainly  the 
most  favourable  ports  ;  but  the  former  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  shallow  water,  while  the  other  would 
occasion  a  delay  often  or  twelve  days  in  ascending 
the  Nile  to  Keneh,  and  crossing  the  intervening 
desert.  The  following  is  the  calculation  as  to  time 
ind  distance  by  this  line  of  conveyance  : — 

Miles.         Days. 

From  Falmouth  to  Malta,        -        -  -        2040  16 

—  Malta  to  Alexandria,           -        -        -      860  5 

—  Alexandria  to  Suez  (by  Cairo),  .          175  6 

—  Suez  to  BabelMandeb,      -        .        .    1200  7 

—  Bab  el  Mandeb  to  Socotra,     -  .          600  4 

—  Socotra  to  Bombay,            .        .        -    1200  7 


6075        45 


The  most  formidable  impediment  in  the  way  of 
IJlis  project,  as  we  have  already  stated  (vol.  i.  p.  79), 


346       SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  ARABS. 

is  the  article  of  expense,  which  has  been  estimated 
at  40,000/.  or  50,000/.  per  annum,  if  the  communica- 
tion is  made  monthly.  But,  though  in  abeyance  in 
the  mean  time,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  plan 
will  be  carried  into  effect.*  The  changes  at  present 
contemplated  in  the  government  andpohcy  of  India 
will  render  it  of  vast  importance  to  establish  a 
shorter  and  cheaper  line  of  intercourse  than  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and  perhaps  the  period  is  not 
very  remote  when  the  commerce  of  the  East  will 
resume  its  ancient  channel,  and  the  great  trading 
capitals  of  Europe  and  Asia  be  brought,  by  the  mar- 
vellous agency  of  steam,  within  a  few  days'  journey 
of  each  other. 

The  population  of  Arabia  cannot,  perhaps,  be  very 
accurately  ascertained.  In  the  towns  and  districts 
belonging  to  Nejed,  Mengin  reckons  50,945  males, 
and  2i3 1,020  women  and  children.  Its  whole  mili- 
tary force  consisted  of  41,100  infantry  and  8620 
cavalry.  The  population  of  Hejaz,  Burckhardt  com- 
puted at  150,000,  the  greater  proportion  of  which 
are  Harb  Bedouins.  The  territory  of  Sinai,  south 
of  a  line  drawn  from  Suez  to  Akaba,  he  supposed 
might  contain  nearly  4000  ;  but  the  number  dimin- 
ishes in  years  when  pasturage  is  scarce.  Yemen 
is  reckoned  to  have  about  a  million  of  inhabitants, 
most  of  whom  belong  to  the  sect  of  the  Zeidites. 
The  entire  population  of  the  Arabian  peninsula 
Head  states  at  11,000,000;  Malte  Brun  thinks  it 
may  probably  amount  to  12,000,000;  a  number 
which,  if  united  by  a  system  of  regular  government 
and  acting  under  one  p'olitical  head,  might  prove  a 
formidable  enemy  to  the  countries  once  overrun  by 
their  warlike  ancestors.  That  this  vast  region  was 
anciently  more  rich  and  populous  than  it  is  now  there 
is  undeniable  evidence  in  its   own  deserts.     The 

*  Captain  Head  estimates  that  a  monthly  voyage  would  leave 
balance  of  no  less  than  52,486/.  of  annual  prnfits. 


SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS.  347 

tribes  on  the  northern  frontiers,  in  the  days  of  the 
Hebrew  judges,  are  represented  as  coming  up  and 
encamping  against  Israel,  with  their  camels,  their 
cattle,  and  their  tents,  like  grasshoppers  for  multi- 
tude. The  plains  of  Hauran  are  strown  with  the 
ruins  of  towns  and  villages  ;  and  many  places  which 
are  susceptible  of  culture,  and  must  once  have  been 
thickly  peopled,  are  overgrown  with  wild  herbage. 
It  may  even  be  doubted  whether  these  regions  have 
always  existed  in  the  same  state  of  hopeless  sterility 
which  they  at  present  exhibit.  Numbers  of  petrified 
trunks  have  been  discovered  in  desolate  tracts, 
where  neither  tree  nor  shrub  has  grow^n  within  the 
remembrance  of  history ;  but  of  the  same  species — 
the  date  and  the  sycamore — which  still  abound  in 
the  more  fertile  parts  of  the  same  district.  These 
facts  seem  to  demonstrate  a  more  flourishing  con- 
dition of  soil  and  population  in  certain  places  than 
are  now  witnessed  by  modern  travellers,  but  at  a 
period  of  which  antiquity  is  silent. 

In  casting  a  retrospective  view  over  the  manners 
and  habits  of  the  Arabs,  we  are  struck  with  the  con- 
tradictory features  which  they  discover,  both  in  their 
social  and  moral  character.  Independently  of  the 
grand  distinction  between  natives  and  settlers,  shep- 
herds and  citizens,  which  naturally  creates  a  differ- 
ence in  their  modes  of  life,  other  anomalous  circum- 
stances are  found  to  exist  among  the  pure  aboriginal 
tribes.  The  spirit  of  patriotism  among  them  is  strong 
and  universal,  yet  they  have  no  home  but  the  path- 
less waste  and  wretched  tent.  They  are  a  nation 
of  brothers,  yet  live  continually  at  war ;  jealous  of 
their  honour,  and  at  the  same  time  addicted  to  the 
meanest  vices.  Though  fierce  and  sanguinary  in 
their  temper,  they  are  not  strangers  to  the  virtues 
of  pity  and  gratitude.  They  are  faithful  where 
they  pledge  their  word,  and  charitable  to  the  needy  ; 
but  they  are  covetous,  and  by  no  means  of  good 
faith  in  pecuniary  transactions. 


348  SOCIAL    STATE    OF    THE    ARABS. 

Their  religious  character  is  marked  by  the  same 
irreconcilable  extremes.  Their  fanaticism  is  coupled 
with  infidelity ;  their  prayers  and  devotions  are 
mingled  with  the  pursuits  of  commerce  and  the 
ideas  of  worldly  lucre.  Islam  has  but  very  little 
hold  on  the  reverence  of  its  disciples,  even  under 
the  domes  of  its  own  temples.  In  the  Desert  there 
is  a  still  more  lax  observance  of  its  precepts  and 
ceremonies.  In  a  pleasant  indifference  about  the 
natter,  the  Bedouins  remark  that  the  religion  of 
^Mohammed  never  could  have  been  intended  for 
them.  "  In  the  Desert,"  say  they,  "  we  have  no 
water ;  how  then  can  we  make  the  prescribed  ab- 
lutions 1  We  have  no  money,  and  how  can  we 
bestow  alms  ?  Why  should  we  fast  in  the  Ramadan, 
since  the  whole  year  with  us  is  one  continual 
abstinence  ;  and  if  God  be  present  everywhere,  why 
should  we  go  to  Mecca  to  adore  him  V  The  whole 
of  their  social  and  moral  economy  remarkably  illus- 
trates tlie  truths  of  Holy  Writ,  that  "  Ishmael  shall 
be  a  wild  man,  whose  hand  is  against  every  man, 
and  every  man's  hand  against  him.'"  Enemies  alike 
to  industry  and  the  arts,  they  dwell  "  without  bolts 
and  bars,"  the  wandering  denizens  of  the  wilderness. 
Religiously  opposed  to  the  luxuries  and  refinements 
of  civilized  life,  these  rude  barbarians  present  the 
phenomenon  of  a  people  living  in  a  state  of  nature, 
unsubdued  and  unchanged ;  yet,  in  their  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  true  God,  still  preserving  evidence 
of  their  lineage  as  the  children  of  Abraham. 


NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA.  349 


CHAPTER  IX. 

NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA 

Want  of  Information  on  the  Natural  History  of  Arabia — Scien- 
tific Discoveries  of  the  Danish  Travellers — Geology — Mount 
Sinai — Hills  of  Hejaz  and  Yemen — Volcanic  Rocks — Hot 
Springs — Soil— Agriculture — Crops — Harvest — Comparative 
Fertility  of  different  Districts — IVIineralogy — No  Gold  or 
Silver  Mines  in  Arabia — Precious  Stones — Botany — Vegeta- 
bles— Plants — Coloquintida — Tobacco — Hemp — T r E e s  and 
Shrubs — Fruit-trees  —  The  Palm — Date-groves — Manna — 
Gum-arabic — Honey  —  S hrubs  —The  Nebek — Tamarisk  — 
Balsam  of  Mecca — The  Gharkad — Henna — Acacia — Incense 
Tree — Coffee — Zoology — Wild  Animals —  Hyenas  —  Mon- 
keys —  Rock-goats — Hares — J  erboas  — Domestic  Animals — 
Cows — Buffaloes — Asses — Horses — Camels — Dromedaries- 
Sheep — Goals — Dogs— Mice— Birds — Poultry— Birds  of  Game 
— Birds  of  Prey — The  Ostrich — The  Lapwing — The  Samar- 
man — Field  sports  of  the  Arabs — Reptiles — Tortoises— Scor- 
pions— Serpents — Fishes — Insects — Tne  Locust — Ants  — Te- 
nebriones — Shells — Coral  Bariks. 

As  few  travellers  comparatively  have  visited  Arabia,  it 
cannot  be  supposed  that  its  natural  history  has  been  very 
minutely  investigated.  The  knowledge  of  the  ancients  on 
this  subject  was  extremely  imperfect,  consisting  chiefly  of 
fabulous  or  exaggerated  reports  as  to  some  of  the  more  cele- 
brated of  its  mineral  and  vegetable  productions.  Several 
useful  observations,  not  indeed  referring  peculiarly  to  that 
country,  occur  in  the  works  of  Kaempfer,  Bochart,  Norden, 
Belon,  Pauw,  Rauwolf,  and  Tournefort.  Shaw  and  Hassel- 
quist  were  both  distinguished  for  their  attainments  in  physi- 
cal science  ;  but  the  reader  will  look  in  vain  in  their  works 
for  that  systematic  arrangement  or  accuracy  of  description 
which  modem  philosophy  has  introduced  into  every  depart- 
ment of  natural  knowledge.  It  is  to  the  Danish  travellers, 
Niebuhr  and  his  companions,  who  have  done  so  much  to  illus- 
trate the  geography,  manners,  and  civil  institutions  of  Arabia, 

Vol.  II.— Gg 


350  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

tlxat  we    are    indebted   almost    exclusively   for  whatever  is 
known  in  Europe  of  ils  minerals,  animals,  and  plants. 

That  literarv  expedition,  which  owed  its  formation  to  the 
patronage  of  Frederick  V.  and  his  minister  Count  Bernstorff, 
sailed  from  Copenhacren  in  Januan.',  1761,  and,  after  a  short 
stay  at  Constantinople,  reached  the  coast  of  Yemen,  by  way 
of  Egypt,  in  December,  1762.  Each  of  the  academicians  who 
composed  it  had  his  particular  task  assigned  him.  Professor 
Von  Haven  was  appointed  linguist  ;  Mons.  Baurentiend  acted 
as  draughtsman  ;  Dr.  Cramer  had  the  office  of  physician  ; 
Mons.  Forskal  was  charged  with  the  department  of  natural 
history  •,  and  Niebuhr  with  that  of  geography.  The  novelty 
of  the  undertaking  xcited  a  lively  interest  among  the  learned 
associations  of  Europe.  A  series  of  questions,  embracing 
many  intricate  points  both  physical  and  philological,  was  pre 
posed  for  solution  bv  Michaehs,  professor  of  theology  at  Got- 
tingen.  A  similar  list  was  drawn  up  and  addressed  to  these 
accompHshed  travellers  by  M.  de  Brequigny  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  at  Paris,  with  a  view  to  obtain  au- 
thentic information  respecting  the  antiquities,  chronology, 
government,  religion,  and  language  of  Yemen.  Of  the  his- 
torical treasures  brought  to  light  in  the  answers  to  these 
interrogatoreis  we  have  not  failed  to  avail  ourselves  in  the 
preceding  chapters  of  our  work. 

It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  from  a  concurrence  of 
unfavourable  circumstances,  the  hopes  of  the  scientific  world 
were  in  a  great  measure  frustrated.  Von  Haven  died  at 
Mocha  within  five  months  after  their  arrival.  Forskal  sur- 
vived him  but  a  few  weeks,  having  expired  at  Jerim  on  the 
11th  of  July  ;  but  not  before  he  had  visited  Sanaa,  and  made 
various  professional  excursions  among  the  Coffee  Mountains 
near  Taas.  In  the  course  of  the  following  year  Niebuhr  lost 
his  two  remaining  companions  :  Baurenfiend  died  at  sea  near 
the  island  of  Socotra,  and  Cramer  ended  his  davs  at  Bom- 
bay. By  this  melancholy  catastrophe,  numerous  valuable 
discoveries  were  doubtless  left  unaccomplished  ;  yet  it  is 
truly  surprising  how  much  was  effected  in  so  short  a  time  by 
the  ardent  zeal  and  indefatigable  industry  of  M.  Forskal.  He 
collected  and  gave  descriptions  of  more  than  300  species  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  and  upwards  of  800  in  the  vegetable  ; 
and  this  number  might  have  been  considerably  increased  had 
he  not  scrupulously  adhered  to  the  resolution  of  admitting 


GEOLOGY.  351 

nothinor  which  he  had  not  examined  with  the  greatest  care. 
These  fracrments  were  afterward  reduced  to  order  by  Nie- 
buhr,  according  to  the  Linnaean  arrangement,  and  published 
in  Latin  in  two  quarto  volumes.*  Owing  to  the  rigour  with 
which  Christians  were  then  excluded  from  the  Holy  Land  of 
the  Moslem,  the  observations  of  the  Danish  travellers  were 
necessarily  restricted  to  the  southern  provinces,  and  those 
parts  of  the  country  thro'igh  which  Niebuhr  passed  in  his  jour- 
ney from  Bagdad  to  Aleppo.  Since  that  time  Mohammedan 
bigotry  has  relaxed  ;  but  this  tolerance  has  not  much  in- 
creased the  information  of  naturalists  ;  and  a  few  geological 
remarks  gleaned  from  the  pages  of  Burckhardt  and  Ali  Bey 
are  all  that  have  been  added  to  the  scientific  treasures  of  the 
northern  philosophers.  In  collecting  and  arranging  the  ma- 
terials which  we  have  drawn  from  these  various  sources,  we 
have  been  less  anxious  to  follow  a  particular  system  than  to 
present  the  general  reader  with  a  simple  and  intelligible  trea- 
tise on  the  subject. 

SECTIOX    I. GEOLOGY. 

Mountains. — It  has  been  already  stated  in  the  description 
of  Arabia,  that  the  mountain-chain  which  traverses  that 
peninsula  from  north  to  south  is  a  continuation  of  Lebanon  in 
Palestine.  Passing  eastward  of  the  Dead  Sea,  it  runs  to- 
wards Akaba,  and  from  thence  extends  as  far  as  Yemen  ;  in 
some  places  approaching  the  shore  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and 
in  others  being  separated  from  it  by  the  intervening  plain  of 
Tehama.  On  the  eastern  side  the  descent  of  this  range  is 
less  by  one-third  than  on  the  western,  owing  perhaps  to  the 
constant  accumulation  of  sand  ;  so  that  the  great  central 
desert  is  considerably  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
lofty  summits,  that  tower  to  the  clouds  when  viewed  from  the 
coast,  dwindle  into  mere  hills  when  seen  from  the  interior. 
At  Wady  Arabah  the  surface  of  the  western  plain  is  perhaps 
1000  feet  lower  than  the  eastern.  The  structure  of  Gebel 
Shera  (Mount  Seir)  is  principally  of  calcareous  rock  ;  there 
are  also  detached  pieces  of  basalt,  and  large  tracts  of  breccia, 
formed  of  sand  and  flint.  About  Mount  Hor  and  Wady 
Mousa  sandstone  of  a  reddish  colour  prevails  ;  and  from  this 

*  Flora  Arabica,  4to   Hafniae,  1775.    Descriptiones  Anima« 
iiura,  ibid.  1775. 


352  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

all  the  tombs  and  temples  of  Petra  have  been  excavated.  To 
the  southward  it  follows  the  whole  extent  of  the  great  valley. 
The  summits  of  these  cliffs  are  so  irregular  and  grotesque, 
that  when  seen  from  a  distance  they  have  the  appearance  of 
volcanic  mountains.  Their  naked  perpendicular  sides  pre- 
sent calcareous  rocks,  sandstone,  and  flint  lying  over  each 
other  in  horizontal  layers.  In  several  parts  of  the  caravan- 
route  between  Suez  and  Akaba,  Burckhardt  observed  large 
insulated  masses  of  porous  tufwacke.  The  famous  Gebel 
Mokkateb,  or  "Written  Mountain,  is  of  sandstone  ;  but  at 
Wady  Borak  the  formation  changes  to  porphyry,  alternating 
with  strata  of  greenstone. 

The  peninsula  of  Sinai  exhibits  a  considerable  diversity  of 
structures,  differing  in  their  ingredients  from  the  ridges  in 
other  parts  of  Arabia.  On  approaching  the  central  summits 
of  the  Sinai  group,  the  traveller  encounters  abrupt  cliffs  of 
granite  from  600  to  800  feet  in  height,  whose  surface  is 
blackened  by  the  sun.  These  precipices  enclose  the  Holy 
Mountain  on  three  sides,  leaving  for  a  passage  a  narrow  defile 
about  forty  feet  in  breadth.  The  upper  nucleus,  including 
the  rugged  peaks  of  St.  Catherine,  is  composed  almost  entirely 
of  granite.  Among  the  lower  ridges  porph\T)'  and  green- 
stone begin  to  appear.  In  many  places  the  latter  takes  the 
nature  of  slate.  The  layers  of  the  former  are  sometimes 
verj'  striking,  running  perpendicularly  from  the  top  to  the 
base  of  the  mountain  in  strata  of  about  twelve  feet  in  width, 
and  projecting  slightly  from  the  other  rocks.  The  porphyry 
of  Sinai,  Burckhardt  rem.arks,  is  usually  a  red  indurated  ar- 
gillaceous substance.  Some  specimens  had  the  appearance 
of  red  felspar.  In  the  argil  are  imbedded  small  cr^'stals  of 
hornblende  or  of  mica,  and  thin  pieces  of  quartz,  the  colour 
of  which  is  universally  red.  The  granite  is  gray  and  of  the 
small-grained  species,  of  which  the  Towara  tribes  manufac- 
ture hand-mills,  which  they  dispose  of  to  the  northern  Arabs, 
or  export  for  sale.  The  intervening  valleys  are  interspersed 
with  blocks  of  chalk- rock  ;  on  each  side,  beds  of  red  or  white 
sandstone  present  their  smooth  perpendicular  surface. 

Shaw  remarks,  that  on  the  route  between  Cairo  and  Suez 
an  infinite  number  of  flints  and  pebbles  are  to  be  met  with, 
all  of  them  superior  to  the  Florentine  marble,  and  frequently 
equal  to  the  Mocha  stone  in  the  variety  of  their  figures  and 
representations,  having  the  images  of  little  trees,  shrubs,  or 


GEOLOGY.  353 

plants  impressed  upon  them, — and  hence  they  have  obtained 
the  name  of  dendrite  stones.  The  poqjhyry  of  Sinai  and  St. 
Catherine  is  distinguished  by  the  same  remarkable  appear- 
ances,— a  circumstance  which  has  induced  some  naturalists 
to  call  it  marmor  ernbuscatum,  or  bushy  marble.  It  was  this 
singular  feature  that  led  Buxtorf  to  derive  the  name  of  Sinai 
from  the  bushes  (the  tamarisks  and  acacias)  figured  in  the 
rocks  ;  although  it  seems  more  natural  that  the  appellation 
should  have  originated  from  the  shrubs  themselves,  as  they 
are  known  to  abound  in  these  deserts.*  Shaw  noticed  some 
branches  of  this  fossil  tamarisk  that  were  nearly  half  an  inch 
in  diameter  ;  the  constituent  matter  appeared  rather  of  a 
mineral  substance,  not  unlike  the  powder  of  lead-ore,  which 
crumbled  into  dust  when  touched  or  rubbed  with  the  fingers. 
The  porphyry,  he  says,  is  sometimes  of  so  small  and  compact 
a  grain  that  the  contexture  is  not  inferior  to  the  ophites  or  ser- 
pentine marble  ;  and  he  thought  it  probable,  that  out  of  this 
rock  were  hewn  the  two  tables  of  the  law  on  which  the  Ten 
Commandments  were  written  with  the  finger  of  God. 

On  the  shore  towards  Akaba  rise  numerous  promontories 
of  black  trap  and  basalt,  the  bases  of  which  have  been 
scooped  by  the  sea  into  creeks,  resembling  small  lakes  with 
very  narrow  entrances.  Some  of  these  cliffs,  which  run  close 
by  the  water's  edge  for  upwards  of  a  mile,  present  granite 
and  red  porphyry  crossing  each  other  horizontally  or  perpen- 
dicularly in  irregular  layers.  The  granite  of  this  peninsula 
exhibits  the  same  numberless  varieties,  and  the  same  beautiful 
specimens,  of  red,  rose-coloured,  and  almost  purple,  that  are 
to  be  found  near  Es  Souan  and  above  the  cataract  of  the  Nile, 
The  transitions  from  primitive  to  secondary  rocks,  partaking 
of  the  nature  of  greenstone  or  graywacke,  or  hornstone  and 
trap,  present  also  an  endless  diversity,  the  description  of  which 
would  only  tire  the  patience  of  the  reader.     Om  Shomar  con- 

*  Sinai  montis  nomen  a  sine,  rubus,  quod  lapides  invent!  in  ea 
figuratum  in  se  habuerint  rubum,  &c.  Buxtorf  in  voce  nJD> 
Other  commentators  say  that  sine  also  signifies  a  breast ;  and  as 
Mounts  Sinai  and  St.  Catherine  are  the  highest  peaks  in  that 
quarter,  they  might  be  so  called  from  their  likeness  to  that  part 
of  the  human  body  ;  a  derivation  far  less  probable  than  the  other. 
The  dendritic  appearance  of  these  rocks  is  mentioned  by  Pros- 
pero  Alpino  (Hist.  Nat.  Egypt,  cap.  vi.  p.  147),  who  speaks  of 
the  "silices  sylviferae,  in  quibus  lapidibus  sylvae,  herbarum, 
fruticum,  &c.  pictae  imagines  cemuntur." 

Gg2 


354  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

si;sts  of  granite  ;  the  lower  stratum  is  red  ;  at  the  top  it  is 
almost  white,  so  as  to  appear  from  a  distance  hke  chalk. 
This  arises  from  the  large  portion  of  white  felspar  in  it,  and 
the  minute  particles  of  hornblende  and  mica.  Towards  the 
middle  of  the  mountain  and  between  the  granite  rocks  are 
broad  strata  of  brittle  black  slate,  mixed  with  layers  of  quartz, 
felspar,  and  micaceous  schistus.  The  quartz  includes,  thin 
strata  of  mica  of  the  most  brilliant  white  colour,  which 
is  quite  dazzling  in  the  sun,  and  forms  a  striking  contrast  with 
the  blackened  surface  of  the  slate  and  the  red  granite. 

The  hills  that  branch  off  from  this  great  chain  between 
Medina  and  Mecca  differ  httle  in  their  formation.  Granite, 
both  of  the  gray  and  red  species,  limestone,  and  porphyry  are 
the  prevailing  rocks.  Ohud,  famous  for  one  of  Mohammed's 
battles,  consists  of  different-coloured  granite.  On  its  sides 
Burckhardt  found  flint,  but  no  lava.  Its  entire  extent  from 
west  to  east  is  about  four  miles.  The  lowest  range  above 
Jidda,  which  is  seldom  more  than  400  or  500  feet  high,  is 
calcareous  ;  but  the  rock  soon  changes  into  gneiss  and  a  spe- 
cies of  granite,  with  schorl  in  the  place  of  felspar,  accompa- 
nied by  masses  of  quartz  and  some  mica.  This  formation 
continues  with  little  variety  as  far  as  the  vicinity  of  Gebel 
Nour,  near  Mecca,  where  granite  begins.  The  mountains 
enclosing  the  valley  of  Muna  are  composed  of  variously 
coloured  granite,  mixed  in  a  few  places  with  strata  of  green- 
stone, trap,  and  porphyry  schistus.  Although  there  are  some 
beds  of  hornblende,  felspar,  mica,  and  schorl  to  be  found 
accidentally  among  them,  yet,  according  to  Ali  Bey,  quartz 
forms  in  general  the  principal  masses.  Their  beds  are 
obhque,  and  in  different  angles  of  declination,  dipping  west- 
ward from  thirty  to  forty-five  degrees.  White  marble  is  said 
to  be  found  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  and  some  travellers  sup 
pose  that  there  is  abundance  of  valuable  minerals,  which  are 
only  hid  because  the  inhabitants  want  skill  or  enterprise  to 
discover  them. 

The  geological  description  of  the  country  northward  of 
Hejaz  applies,  with  httle  variation,  to  the  lofty  chain  that 
extends  along  the  coast  for  nearly  1800  miles,  from  Mecca 
to  Muscat ;  except  that,  in  the  ridge  behind  Tehama,  schis- 
tus and  basalt  predominate,  instead  of  granite.  At  Kahhme, 
near  Beit  el  Fakih,  Niebuhr  saw  a  hill  composed  entirely  of 
pentagonal  basaltic  columns,  each  about  eight  inches  in  diam- 


GEOLOGY.  355 

«ter,  and  so  uniformly  regular,  that  they  might  be  mistaken 
for  the  work  of  art.  They  rise  vertically  one  over  the  other, 
sometimes  spreading  in  parallel  rows  to  a  considerable  extent. 
In  different  parts  of  Yemen,  especially  among  the  Coffee 
Mountains,  similar  phenomena  were  observed,  which  contrib- 
uted greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape  ;  particularly  in 
the  rainy  season,  when  the  water  was  seen  rushing  over  their 
summits,  and  forming  cascades,  which  had  the  appearance 
of  being  supported  by  rows  of  artificial  pillars.  These  basalts 
were  useful  to  the  inhabitants,  serving  as  materials  for  build- 
ing steps  to  climb  the  hills  where  the  ascent  was  ditficult,  and 
also  as  walls  to  support  the  plantations  of  coffee-trees  on  the 
steepest  declivities.  The  mountains  southward  of  Muscat, 
behind  Ras  el  Hud,  are  chiefly  of  granite,  and  according  to 
Captain  Owen  rise  to  the  height  of  6000  feet. 

Volcanic  Rocks. — The  first  and  only  appearance  of  volcanic 
action  which  Burckhardt  detected  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai 
was  on  the  coast  near  Sherm.  For  a  distance  of  about  two 
miles  the  hills  presented  perpendicular  cliffs  from  sixty  to 
eighty  feet  in  height,  some  of  them  nearly  circular,  others 
semicircular.  The  rocks  were  black,  slightly  tinged  with 
red,  of  a  rough  surface,  and  full  of  cavities.  In  other  places 
there  was  an  appearance  of  volcanic  craters.  No  traces  o* 
lava  vvere  observed  towards  the  higher  mountains,  which 
seemed  to  prove  that  the  discharged  matter  was  confined  to 
that  spot.  The  hills  round  Medina,  as  well  as  the  lower 
ridge  of  the  great  northern  chain,  exhibit  a  layer  of  volcanic 
rock.  It  is  of  a  bluish-black  colour,  verv"^  porous,  yet  heavy 
and  hard,  not  glazed,  and  intermixed  with  small  white  sub- 
stances of  the  size  of  a  pin-head,  but  not  cr)^stallized.  The 
whole  plain  is  blackened  by  the  debris,  with  which  it  is  over- 
spread. This  traveller  observed  no  lava,  although  the  nature 
of  the  ground  seemed  strongly  to  indicate  the  neighbourhood 
of  a  volcano.  The  inhabitants  gave  him  an  account  of  an 
earthquake  and  a  volcanic  eruption,  which  took  place  there 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They  described 
it  as  bursting  forth  eastward  of  the  town,  with  a  smoke  that 
completely  darkened  the  sky  ;  at  the  same  time  a  fiery  mass 
of  immense  size,  resembling  a  large  city  with  walls,  battle- 
ments, and  minarets,  was  seen  ascending  to  heaven.  The 
number  of  hot-springs  found  at  almost  every  station  of  the 
iroad  to  Mecca  seems  to  authorize  the  conjecture  that  simi- 


356  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

lar  volcanoes  have  existed  in  many  other  points  of  the  moun- 
tain-ridge between  Syria  and  Yemen.  Ali  Bey  remarked 
seven  groups  of  volcanic  hills  near  Jedeida,  which  were  en- 
tirely black,  and  had  the  appearance  of  very  picturesque  ruins. 
The  islands  of  Kotembel  and  Gebel  Tar,  in  the  Red  Sea, 
have  been  already  noticed  as  exhibiting  traces  of  eruptions 
now  extinct ;  and  travellers  have  remarked  that  the  rocky 
peninsula  on  which  Aden  is  situated  resembles  the  fragment 
of  a  volcano,  the  crater  of  which  is  covered  by  the  sea.* 

Hot  Springs. — The  fountains  already  mentioned,  called 
Ayoun  Mousa  or  the  Wells  of  Moses,  are  lukewarm  and  sul- 
phureous, boiling  three  or  four  inches  above  the  surface,  as 
if  they  were  agitated  below  by  some  violent  heat.  The 
water  brings  up  the  sand  with  it ;  yet  the  inhabitants  abou\. 
the  place  drink  it  in  preference  to  the  brackish  springs  near 
Suez.  Tococke  says  that  the  ground  around  them  is  like  a 
quagmire,  and  dangerous  if  approached  too  near.  Several 
of  these  springs  appeared  to  be  dried  up  :  one  only  affords 
sweet  water  ;  but  it  is  so  often  rendered  muddy  by  the  camels 
of  the  Arabs  that  it  is  rarely  fit  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
thirsty  traveller.  The  waters  of  Hammam  Faraoun  or  Baths 
of  Pharaoh,  near  Wady  Gharendel,  are  extremely  hot.  Shaw 
was  assured  that  an  egg  might  be  boiled  hard  in  one  minute  ; 
but  he  had  no  opportunity  of  making  the  experiment  himself. 
These  baths  he  within  a  cavern  or  grotto  in  the  rock,  and 
have  a  low  narrow  entrance  leading  to  them.  "  As  soon  as 
one  enters  this  passage,"  says  Pococke,  "  there  is  heat 
enough  to  make  anybody  sweat  very  plentifully,  and  many 
peopfe  have  died  that  have  gone  as  far  as  the  water,  by  a  vapour 
that  extinguishes  the  lights.  The  water  runs  through  the 
rocks  and  sandbanks  in  a  great  number  of  little  streams  into 
the  sea  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  it  is  even  there  exceed- 
ingly hot,  and  so  are  the  stones,  which  are  incrusted  with  a 
white  substance,  apparently  of  salt  and  sulphur."  This  trav- 
eller gives  an  analysis  of  the  fluid,  which  was  found  to  be 
impregnated  with  much  earthy  gross  sulphur,  a  neutral  salt, 
a  small  quantity  of  alum,  but  no  vitriol.  The  taste  is  nau- 
seous ;  but  its  virtues  are  much  esteemed  in  cutaneous  and 
nervous  disorders,  as  also  for  removing  sterility.  The  pa- 
tients, male  or  female,  who  desire  a  family,  have  this  fertilizing 

*  Vol.  i.  p  66.    Valentia's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  86. 


SOIL.  357 

element  copiously  poured  over  them  ;  during  forty  days  their 
sole  food  must  be  oil,  honey,  and  bread  baked  without  salt, 
and  their  drink  water  with  dates  steeped  in  it. 

Soil. — Arabia  presents  great  diversities  of  soil.  In  the 
highlands  of  Yemen  its  general  character  is  clay  mixed  with 
sand  ;  but  the  conformation  of  those  schistous  hills  is  unfa- 
vourable to  the  growth  of  plants.  They  are  usually  so  craggy 
and  precipitous  as  to  afford  neither  room  nor  aliment  for  vege- 
table productions  ;  the  nutritive  earth  being  continually 
washed  down  by  the  rains.  This  circumstance  has  also  had 
the  effect  of  rendering  culture  in  these  districts  extremely 
difficult  and  expensive  ;  water  must  be  supplied  either  from 
wells,  or  by  terraces  constructed  along  the  sides  of  the 
mountains.  The  barren  sands  of  Hejaz  resemble  pulverized 
quartz  ;  the  calcareous  stone  from  the  hills  is  decomposed 
into  a  blackish  earth,  which  in  time  becomes  fit  to  bear  coarse 
vegetables.  The  cultivable  soil  around  Medina  is  clay, 
mixed  with  a  good  deal  of  chalk  and  sand,  and  is  of  a  grayish 
white  colour.  In  other  parts  it  consists  of  a  yellow  loam, 
and  also  of  a  substance  resembling  bole-earth  ;  of  the  latter, 
small  conical  pieces  about  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  dried 
in  the  sun  and  suspended  on  a  piece  of  riband,  are  sold  to 
the  pilgrims,  who  carry  them  home  in  commemoration  of  a 
miracle  said  to  have  been  performed  by  Mohammed,  who 
cured  several  Bedouins  of  a  fever  by  washing  their  bodies 
with  water  in  which  this  earth  had  been  dissolved.  The 
plain  of  Tehama  contains  large  strata  of  salt.  Lord  Valen- 
tia  states,  that  in  digging  a  well  at  Mocha  Mr.  Pringle  found 
the  first  eight  feet  to  he  the  rubbish  of  buildings, — the  next 
two  of  clay, — one  of  sea-mud  and  wreck, — six  of  broken 
madrepores,  and  eleven  of  sand  and  shells  ;  thus  showing 
that,  to  the  depth  of  twenty-eight  feet,  the  earth  was  entirely 
composed  of  marine  exuviae,  with  the  exception  of  clay. 
Near  the  surface  the  water  was  highly  mephitic  ;  lower  down 
it  became  less  brackish,  and  yielded  only  one  per  cent,  of 
salt.  The  wadis  are  generally  formed  of  alluvial  depositions ; 
and  are  in  consequence  the  most  rich  and  beautiful  spots  in 
the  peninsula. 

The  extreme  variety  of  soils  admits  of  a  corresponding 
diversity  in  the  modes  of  cultivation,  as  well  as  in  the  kind 
and  quantity  of  the  crops  produced.  In  the  greater  part  of 
Arabia  agriculture  may  be  said  to  be  entirely  unknown.     In 


358  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

Yemen,  where  there  is  a  settled  government,  husbandry  is  in 
a  more  prosperous  condition  than  in  Syria  or  Mesopotamia. 
"WTiole  fields  are  cultivated  like  gardens.  Great  pains  are 
taken  in  watering  them,  though  the  Arabs  have  not  adopted 
the  hydidulic  machinery  which  is  used  by  their  neighbours  in 
Egypt  and  India.  Their  plough  is  of  a  very  rude  construc- 
tion. It  is  dragged  over  the  ground  in  every  direction  by 
oxen,  until  the  surface  is  sufficiently  broken  and  loosened 
for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  On  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates sometimes  asses  and  mules  are  employed  in  this 
labour.  "VMiere  the  ground  is  hilly  and  not  accessible  to  the 
plough  it  is  dug  by  the  hoe  ;  and  this  implement  is  some- 
times so  large  as  to  require  the  management  of  two  men, 
one  of  whom  presses  it  into  the  earth,  while  the  other  pulls 
forward  with  a  cord. 

The  crops  most  common  in  Arabia  are  wheat,  barley,  rice, 
millet,  maize,  dhourra,  dokoun,  and  safra.  The  two  latter 
yield  small  round  yellow  grains,  which  the  Bedouins  grind  to 
flour,  and  subsist  on  during  winter.  No  oats  are  sown  in 
any  part  of  Hejaz  ;  bat  they  grow  in  other  districts  of  the 
country.  There  is  great  variation  in  the  season  both  of 
sowing  and  reaping.  In  Nejed  wheat  and  barley  are  sown  in 
October  and  gathered  in  April.  Rice  is  sown  in  June,  and 
comes  to  maturity  in  September.  The  seedtime  for  dhourra, 
maize,  dokoun,  and  safra  is  May  ;  and  they  are  reaped  in 
August.  No  rice  is  cultivated  in  Nejed,  owing  to  the  aridity 
of  the  climate  ;  but  it  grows  abundantly  in  El  Hassa,  Oman, 
and  Yemen,  where  nature  has  supplied  the  means  of  irriga- 
tion. In  the  Hauran,  where  there  is  plenty  of  water,  the 
peasants  sow  winter  and  summer  seeds  ;  but  where  they 
have  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  rainy  season  nothing  can 
be  cultivated  in  summer.  The  first  harvest  is  that  of  horse- 
beans,  at  the  end  of  April,  of  which  vast  tracts  are  sown  ; 
next  comes  the  barley  harvest,  and  the  wheat  towards  the 
end  of  May.  In  abundant  years  this  grain  sells  at  fifty 
piastres  the  gharara,  or  about  21.  lOs.  for  fifteen  cwt.  In 
the  southern  provinces  there  is  a  material  change  both  as  to 
the  time  and  the  relative  produce  of  the  harvest.  At  Mus- 
cat wheat  and  barley  are  sown  in  December,  and  reaped 
about  the  end  of  March  ;  while  dhourra  is  sown  in  August, 
and  ripens  in  November.  This  difference  of  seasons  may  be 
remarked  even  within  the  narrow  extent  of  the  province  of 


AGRICULTURE.  359 

Yemen.  At  Sanaa,  Niebuhr  observed  that  the  barley  was 
cut  down  on  the  15th  of  July,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the 
neighbouring  mountains  were  occupied  in  sowing  their  pulse 
and  lentils.  In  the  plain  of  Beit  el  Fakih  the  dhourra  was 
seven  feet  high  in  the  beginning  of  August  ;  and  at  the  same 
time  the  peasants  in  the  valley  of  Zebid,  distant  only  a  very 
short  day's  journey,  were  ploughing  and  watering  their  fields 
for  a  second  crop.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  barley 
is  cut  early  in  May,  and  wheat  about  six  weeks  later.  All 
kinds  of  grain  ripen  at  Bagdad  twenty-four  days  sooner  than 
at  Mosul.  This  singular  diversity  of  season  is  nowhere  more 
remarkable  than  in  the  districts  bordering  on  Syria.  Burck- 
hardt  observed,  that  while  the  Hauran  was  everywhere  cov- 
ered with  the  richest  verdure  of  wild  herbage,  every  plant  in 
Wady  Ghor  was  already  dried  up.  To  the  north  Gebel  Sheik 
was  covered  with  snow  ;  to  the  east  the  fertile  plains  of 
Jolan  were  clothed  in  the  blossoms  of  spring  ;  while  towards 
the  south  the  withered  vegetation  indicated  the  effect  of  a 
tropical  sun. 

The  usual  mode  of  sowing  is  with  the  hand  :  the  seed  is 
then  covered  with  the  plough  or  with  a  large  rake,  and 
watered  every  ten  days,  either  by  manual  labour  or  with  the 
aid  of  a  simple  machine,  called  niakalah,  placed  over  the 
mouth  of  a  well  furnished  with  buckets,  and  wrought  by 
asses  or  oxen.  The  Arabs  use  a  small  quantity  of  seed  : 
they  are  disposed  to  trust  in  the  bounty  of  Heaven  and  the 
regularity  of  the  seasons,  rather  than  lose  a  superfluous  par- 
ticle. In  some  districts  of  Yemen,  maize,  dhourra,  and 
lentils  are  planted  with  the  hand  in  furrows  or  drills  :  and 
these  crops  Niebuhr  represents  as  the  finest  and  most  luxu- 
riant he  had  ever  seen.  As  the  planter  went  on  he  covered 
the  grain  by  pushing  in  the  mould  with  his  feet  on  both  sides. 
In  other  places  he  followed  the  ploughman,  who  in  his  turn 
covered  the  seed  by  coming  back  upon  the  same  furrow  ;  a 
method  which,  though  economical,  must  be  exceedingly 
troublesome.  Noxious  weeds  are  rooted  out  with  the  hand 
while  the  corn  is  in  the  blade  ;  and  sometimes  this  operation 
is  performed  by  a  small  plough,  to  which  the  oxen  are  so 
yoked,  that  they  pass  between  the  rows  v/ithout  injuring  the 
plants,  even  when  these  are  eight  or  ten  inches  high.  For 
preserving  the  young  crops  the  peasants  watch  their  fields  by 
turns,  to  drive  away  birds  and  granivorous  animals.     In  the 


360  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

hififhlands  of  Yemen  the  comherd  seats  himself  on  a  tree  ; 
in  Tehama  a  sort  of  scaffold  is  raised,  having  a  roof  or  awn- 
incT  spread  over  it.  They  are  not,  however,  all  equally  care- 
ful ;  and  Niebuhr  remarks,  that  he  passed  fields  between 
Mofhak  and  Sanaa  very  irregularly  sown,  and  overrun  with 
cockle-weeds. 

In  Nejad  reaping  is  performed  with  the  sickle  ;  but  in  Ye- 
men the  ripe  grain  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots  ;  the  instrument 
beincr  only  used  in  cutting  grass  or  other  forage  for  cattle. 
Like  the  Indians,  the  Arabs  have  a  simple  method  of  sharp- 
ening tliis  implement  by  rubbing  the  blade  with  moistened 
sand.  In  thrashing  their  com  they  have  made  no  advance 
beyond  the  ancient  and  patriarchal  fashion  of  which  we  read 
in  the  books  of  Moses.  The  sheaves  are  laid  down  on  the 
floor  in  a  certain  order,  and  over  them  eight  or  ten  oxen, 
fastened  to  an  upright  post  in  the  centre,  are  driven,  until  the 
grain  is  completely  separated  from  the  ear.  The  straw  is 
removed  with  pitchforks,  and  preserved  as  food  for  horses 
and  cattle.  In  Yemen  this  operation  is  performed  by  two 
oxen  dragging  a  large  stone  over  the  sheaves  ;  and  in  the 
Hauran  a  heavy  plank  is  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Com 
of  all  kinds  is  cleared  from  the  chaff  by  being  thrown  up 
against  the  wind  with  a  shovel  (the /an  of  the  sacred  writers), 
and  then  passed  through  a  sieve  ;  after  which  it  is  ready  far 
the  process  of  grinding. 

Travellers  have  remarked  a  very  great  difference  with 
regard  to  the  comparative  increase  of  certain  crops,  and  the 
productive  powers  of  the  soil.     In  Oman,  according  to  Nie- 
buhr, wheat  yields  ten  to  one  ;  while  in  the  best-cultivated 
lands  of  Yemen  it  gives  a  return  of  fifty  fold.     In  the  vicin- 
ity of  Bussora  and   Bagdad   the    increase    seldom  exceeds 
twenty  to  one  ;  at  Mosul  it  varies  from  ten  to  fifteen  ;  and 
in  Diarbekir  the  ordinary  wheat-crop  produces  from  four  to 
fifteen  fold.     In  the  Hauran  this  grain  yields  in  middling 
years  twenty-five,  and  in   good  seasons  one  hundred  and 
twenty  fold  ;  while  barley  gives  fifty,  and  in  some  instances 
eighty  fold.     But  the  corn  of  those  districts  which  are  watered 
solely  from  the  clouds  is  of  better  quality,  and  produces  more 
flour   than  what   is   grown  on   fields   irrigated  by  artificial 
means  :  hence  a  return  of  fifteen  in  Syria  is  reckoned  more 
than  equivalent  to  twenty  fold  in  Mesopotamia.     A  govern- 
ment-tax of  ten  per  cent  on  all  grain  is  levied  in  Nejed ; 


MINERALOGY.  361 

but  where  the  labour  of  irrigation  is  required  this  impost  is 
reduced  one-half,  in  consideration  of  the  additional  expense. 
Of  all  kinds  of  grain  dhourra  is  the  most  productive.  On 
the  hills  of  Yemen  it  gives  a  return  of  140  ;  and  in  Tehama, 
where  the  inhabitants  reap  three  successive  crops  from  the 
same  field  in  the  same  year,  this  increase  varies  from  200  to 
400  :  an  exuberance  that  appears  almost  incredible,  but 
which  is  chiefly  owing  to  their  mode  of  sowing  and  their 
industrious  irrigation.  As  this  grain  forms  the  staple  arti- 
cle of  food,  not  only  in  Arabia,  but  in  other  Eastern  countries, 
its  extraordinary  fertility  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  those 
benevolent  arrangements  of  Providence,  whose  economy  is 
adapted  with  such  exquisite  wisdom  to  the  wants  and  circum- 
stances of  man  in  all  climates  and  in  every  region  of  the  earth. 


SECTION    II. MINERALOGY. 

We  have  noticed  elsewhere,  that  the  mineral  treasures 
ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  Arabia  have  almost  entirely  van- 
ished ;  although  the  positive  and  unanimous  testimony  both 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors  will  not  permit  us  to  doubt 
as  to  the  fact  of  the  wealth  formerly  drawn  from  the  veins 
of  Yemen.  We  have  the  authority  of  Niebuhr,  that  the 
precious  metals  are  not  found  or  known  to  exist  in  Arabia, 
which  has  no  mines  either  of  gold  or  silver.  The  rivulets 
no  longer  wash  down  the  yellow  grains  f'-om  the  hills  ;  nor 
do  their  sands  exhibit  any  trace  of  so  rich  an  intermixture. 
All  the  gold  circulating  in  that  country-  comes  from  Abys- 
sinia or  Europe,  and  is  generally  received  in  payment  for 
coffee  or  other  merchandise.  When  the  Imam  of  Sanaa  last 
century  attempted  to  introduce  a  gold  currency,  he  was  obliged 
to  melt  down  foreign  money  (Venetian  sequins)  for  the  pur- 
pose. There  are  still  enthusiasts  in  alchymy  who  prt-tend 
to  know  the  art  of  transmuting  metals,  and  im.agine  them- 
selves sure  of  success  could  they  but  discover  a  certain  herb, 
called  haschischet  el  dab,  which  gilds  the  teeth  and  gives  a 
yellow  colour  to  the  flesh  of  the  sheep  and  goats  that  eat  it. 
At  Beit  el  Falcih  the  Danish  travellers  found  two  alchyinists 
who  had  ruined  themselves  by  their  researches  into  the  mys- 
tery of  gold-making  ;  and  they  mention  a  philosopher  of 
Loheia,  who  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  that  mines  of 

Vol.  II.-^H  h 


362  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

thgt  precious  article  were  known  to  him,  and  to  nobody  else; 
an  assertion  to  which  they  paid  not  the  slightest  credit. 

JVo  veins  of  silver  are  known  to  exist ;  but  a  small  quan- 
tity of  that  metal  is  extracted  from  the  rich  lead-mines  in 
Oman.  As  the  lead  of  that  province  is  extremely  fusible, 
the  inhabitants  export  it  in  great  abundance  ;  and  it  forms 
an  article  of  considerable  traffic  from  the  port  of  Muscat. 
In  "VVady  Osh  near  Sinai  the  Arabs  collect  native  cinnabar, 
which  is  usually  found  in  small  pieces  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg.  It  is  very  seldom  cr}'stallized,  though  there 
are  sometimes  nodules  on  the  surface.  The  fracture  is  in 
perpendicular  fibres  ;  and  it  stains  the  fingers  of  a  dark 
colour. 

Of  precious  stones,  strictly  so  called,  Niebuhr  could  learn 
nothing  ;  and  he  supposes  that  in  ancient  times  they  must 
have  been  all  imported  from  India.  Though  the  onyx  is 
common  in  Yemen,  especially  between  Taas  and  Mount  Su- 
marra,  he  did  not  think  it  probable  that  Ihe  emerald  was  in- 
digenous. There  is  a  hill  ^that  bears  this  name,  but  it  is  on 
the  Egyptian  side  of  the  Gulf,  and  forms  part  of  that  large 
chain  of  granitic  mountains  that  runs  parallel  with  the  Red 
Sea.  The  agate,  called  the  Mocha  slone,  comes  from  Surat, 
and  the  finest  carnelions  are  brought  from  the  Gulf  of  Cam- 
bay.  The  smaragdus  cholos,  or  inferior  emerald,  which  ac- 
cording to  Pliny  was  used  in  building  to  ornament  the  walls 
of  houses,  was  probably  diallage  ;  and  some  writers  (Malta 
Brun)  have  conjectured  that  the  aromalites,ox  aromalic  stone 
of  the  ancients,  was  amber.  In  a  mountain  near  Dainar  is 
found  a  stone  which  the  Arabs  call  ayek  yemani,  and  which 
they  hold  in  the  highest  estimation.  It  is  of  a  red  or  rather 
a  light  brown  colour,  and  seems  to  be  a  carnelion.  The 
natives  set  it  in  rings  or  bracelets,  and  ascribe  to  it  the  talis- 
manic  virtue  of  healing  wounds,  and  stanching  blood  when 
instantly  applied.  The  topaz  belongs  to  Arabia,  and  derived 
its  name,  according  to  Pliny,  from  the  island  Topazos  (now 
called  Zemorget)  in  the  Red  Sea.  He  also  mentions  Cytes, 
another  islet  where  good  specimens  were  found. 

Stones  of  less  value  are  by  no  means  rare.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Loheia,  the  Danish  travellers  found  a  bluish 
gypsum,  a  gray  schistus,  and  spheroidal  marcasites,  in  beds 
of  grit-stone,  which  are  used  in  building.  Near  Kahhme 
they  saw  a  ferruginous  spar,  mixed  with  brown  and  white 


MINERALOGY.  363 

selenite,  almost  transparent.  The  dark  granitic  rocks  of 
Sinai  contain  jasper,  amethyst,  and  syenite  ;  macrnets  are 
frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  province  of  Kusma  ;  and  at 
Saade  there  are  iron-mines  which  are  still  worked.  Par- 
ticles of  this  ore  are  also  to  be  found  among  the  sands  that 
are  washed  down  from  the  hills  by  the  rain.  It  was  the 
belief  of  the  ancients  that  Arabia  was  entirely  destitute  of 
iron  ;  but  this  opinion  proves  to  be  unfounded.  Niebuhr 
confesses,  however,  that  it  is  coarse  and  brittle  :  and,  from 
the  scarcity  of  wood,  it  sells  at  a  higher  price  than  that  which 
is  imported  from  other  countries. 

At  Loheia,  and  near  the  isle  of  Kameran,  to  the  north  of 
Hodeida,  there  are  hills  consisting  almost  entirely  of  fossil 
salt.  These  masses  are  piled  up  in  large  transparent  strata, 
and  enclosed  in  a  crust  of  calcareous  stone.  The  Arabs  for- 
merly wrought  these  mines  ;  but  the  galleries  have  been 
allowed  to  sink  down,  although  a  considerable  quantity  of 
that  article  is  still  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood.*  Burck- 
hardt  states,  that  rock-salt  is  found  in  the  mountains  south 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  in  the  sandstone  strata  in  Wady  Rom- 
man,  near  Gebel  Mokkateb.  Oman  possesses  copper-mines  ; 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mecca  Ali  Bey  observed  some 
veins  of  sulphur  that  were  open.  In  the  northern  Ghor,  pieces 
of  native  sulphur  are  discovered  at  a  small  depth  beneath  the 
surface,  which  are  used  by  the  Bedouins  for  curing  diseases  in 
their  camels.  Shaw  was  of  opinion  that  lead-mines  existed 
near  Sinai. 

The  Arabs,  in  general,  still  believe  in  the  foolish  old  super- 
stitions respecting  their  gems  and  precious  stones  ;  and  are 
more  apt  to  wo-nder  at  their  miraculous  virtues  than  to  turn 
them  to  account  in  the  way  of  commerce.  In  ancient  times 
they  were  used  as  antidotes,  to  which  the  wearer  piously 
ascribed  his  safety  when  surrounded  with  invisible  danger. 
Among  other  absurdities,  it  is  recorded  of  the  Caliph  Soliman 
that  he  wore  constantly  round  his  arm  a  bracelet  composed  of 
ten  of  these  magical  stones,  which  never  failed  to  strike  one 
against  the  other,  and  make  a  slight  noise  when  any  poison 
was  near.t  The  carbuncle  was  believed  to  possess  many 
pvonderful  qualities.     It  was  supposed  to  be  an  animal  sub- 

*  Capt.  Head's  Journey,  p.  7. 

t  Marigny,  Hist,  des  Arab,  tome  ii. 


364  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

stance  formed  in  the  serpent,  which  had  a  most  ingenious 
method  of  preserving  it  from  the  song  of  the  charmer.  The 
distinction  of  sex  was  also  ascribed  to  it ;  the  females  threw 
out  their  radiance,  while  the  males  appeared  within  like  bril- 
liant and  burning  stars.* 


*  The  historian  De  Thou  mentions  a  marvellous  carbuncle 
that  was  brought  by  an  Eastern  merchant  to  Bologna.  Among 
its  surprismg  properties,  he  states,  "  that  being  most  impatient 
of  the  earth,  if  it  was  contined  it  would  force  its  way,  and  imme- 
diately fly  aloft.  Certain  shape  it  had  none,  for  its  figure  was 
inconstant,  and  momentarily  changing ;  and  though  at  a  distance 
it  was  beautiful  to  the  eye,  it  would  not  suffer  itself  to  be  han- 
dled with  impunity,  but  hurt  those  who  ob.stinately  struggled 
with  it,  as  many  persons,  before  many  spectators,  experienced. 
If  by  chance  any  part  of  it  was  broken  off,  for  it  was  not  very 
hard,  it  became  nothing  less." — Thuanus,  lib.  viii.  ix.  Besides 
the  power  of  charming  against  spells,  some  of  them  were  be- 
lieved to  have  the  virtue  of  rendering  their  possessor  invisible  or 
invulnerable,  of  enabling  him  to  see  through  rocks,  and  to  dis- 
cover hidden  treisures.  Of  their  medicmal  properties,  we  are 
told  that  the  amethyst  could  remove  the  effects  of  intoxication  ; 
"  for  being  bound  on  the  navel,  it  restrains  the  vapours  of  the 
wine,  and  so  dissolves  the  inebriety."  The  borax  or  crapondinus 
was  reckoned  of  unfailing  efficacy  in  poisons.  Jt  was  said  to  be 
extracted  from  a  dead  toad,  and  described  as  of  a  black  or  dun 
colour,  with  a  cerulean  glow,  having  in  the  middle  the  simili- 
tude of  an  eye.  The  kinocteiis  was  employed  to  cast  out  devils  ; 
and  the  corvina,  a  stone  of  a  reddish  colour,  found  in  crows' 
nests,  was  supposed  to  make  boiled  or  addled  eggs  fresh  and  pro- 
lific ;  besides  having  the  virtue  "  to  increase  riches,  bestow 
honours,  and  foretel  many  future  events."  The  alectoria,  a 
stone  of  a  darkish  crystalline  colour,  was  said  to  be  found  in  the 
intestines  of  capons  that  had  lived  seven  years.  Its  size  was  no 
bigger  than  a  bean  ;  but  its  qualities  are  represented  as  of  a  very 
potent  and  miscellaneous  nature.  "  Jt  could  render  the  person 
who  carried  it  invisible  ;  being  held  in  the  mouth  it  allays  thirst, 
and  therefore  is  proper  for  wrestlers ;  it  makes  a  wife  agreeable 
to  her  husband  ;  bestows  honours,  and  preserves  those  already 
acquired  ;  it  frees  such  as  are  bewitched  ;  it  renders  a  man  elo- 
quent, constant,  and  amiable  ;  it  helps  to  regain  a  lost  kingdom 
and  acquire  a  foreign  one." — Mirror  of  Stones.  "  In  the  coun- 
trey  called  Panten  or  Tathalamasin,  there  be  canes,  called  cas- 
san,  which  overspread  the  earth  like  grasse,  and  out  of  every  knot 
of  them  spring  foorth  certaine  branches,  which  are  continued 
upon  the  ground  almost  for  the  space  of  a  mile.    In  the  sayd 


BOTANY.  365 

It  was  customary  with  the  Arabian  physicians,  during  the 
highest  era  of  Saracen  learning,  to  administer  preciou-j  stones 
in  the  way  of  medicine,  as  remedies  for  certain  diseases  ;  but 
their  miraculous  properties  have  been  long  since  exploded. 
It  is  now  generally  admitted,  as  has  been  already  observed, 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  gems,  je'vels,  and  precious  metals, 
with  which  the  ancient  Hamyarites  embellished  their  cities, 
temples,  and  palaces,  were  obtained  from  the  Indians,  Per- 
sians, and  Romans,  in  exchange  for  the  spices  and  perfumes 
which  they  imported  from  the  Happy  Arabia. 


SECTION    III. BOTANY. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  Arabia  neither  the  soil  nor 
the  climate  is  favourable  to  vegetation  ;  the  botany  of  such  a 
country  cannot  therefore  be  either  varied  or  extensive.  The 
heat  of  the  sun  is  so  intense  that  the  flowers  no  sooner  blow 
than  they  are  withered ;  so  that  the  naturalist  is  not  only 
circumscribed  as  to  the  number  of  plants,  but  limited  as  to 
the  proper  time  for  observation  ;  and  if  he  miss  the  particular 
moment  in  examining  certain  species  when  they  are  in  bloom, 
he  can  have  no  subsequent  opportunity  until  another  season- 
Besides  these  physical  inconveniences  there  are  others  aris- 
ing from  the  character  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Arabs,  who 
are  an  ignorant,  jealous,  and  avaricious  people,  cannot  com- 
prehend how  foreigners  should  be  prompted  by  mere  curiosity, 
or  a  love  of  science,  to  expose  themselves  to  so  much  danger 
and  fatigue;  hence  the  idea  prevalent  among  them  is,  that 
Europeans  are  attracted  by  motives  of  interest  and  the  desire 
of  discovering  hidden  treasures,  either  in  their  mountains  or 
among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities.  This  belief  operates 
strongly  against  scientific  investigations  ;  as  travellers  are 
exposed  to  the  risk  of  being  plundered  or  murdered,  on  ac- 
count of  the  imaginary  wealth  which  they  are  supposed  to 

canes  there  are  found  certaine  stones,  one  of  which  stones  who- 
soever carryeth  about  with  him  cannot  be  wounded  with  any 
yron  ;  and  by  the  vertue  of  these  stones,  the  people  aforesaid  doe 
for  the  most  part  triumph  both  on  sea  and  land." — Odoricus  in 
Hakluyt.  This  evidently  refers  to  the  Tabasheer,  a  siliceous 
substance  found  in  the  joints  of  the  bamboo,  and  to  which  great 
■eirtues  are  attributed  in  India. 

Hh2 


366  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

possess.  In  Yemen  there  is  less  of  this  prejudice,  and  con- 
sequently less  interruption,  than  in  other  provinces.* 

There  are  in  Arabia  a  considerable  number  of  vegetable 
productions  common  to  other  regions,  both  of  a  colder  and  a 
warmer  climate.  In  the  highlands  plants  grow  which  are 
found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  ;  while  in  the  plains 
and  valleys  may  be  seen  species  that  are  to  be  met  with  in 
India  and  Africa,  and  which  have  probably  been  introduced 
by  settlers  from  these  countries.  Niebuhr  has  remarked, 
however,  that  where  there  are  in  Europe  various  species  of 
any  genus  of  plants,  the  Arabian  species  of  the  same  genus 
are  almost  all  new ;  while  no  such  diversity  is  observed  in 
those  which  are  common  to  Arabia  with  India.  So  little 
known  were  the  indigenous  plants  of  Yemen,  that  Forskal 
was  obliged  to  form  no  less  than  thirty  new  genera,  besides  a 
variety  of  doubtful  species  which  he  could  hardly  venture  to 
include  under  any  generic  arrangement.  Of  the  800  speci- 
mens which  he  has  described,  it  is  unnecessary  for  our  pur- 
pose to  do  more  than  allude  to  a  few  that  may  be  considered 
remarkable  for  their  novelty  or  their  usefulness. 

Vegetables. — The  Arabs  cultivate  several  pot-herbs  that 
are  common  in  our  gardens, — such  as  carrots,  turnips,  beans, 
onions,  leeks,  garlic,  asparagus,  beet,  spinach,  lettuce,  a  very 
delicate  purslain  with  sharp  leaves,  a  sort  of  radish  of  which 
the  leaves  only  are  eaten,  water-cresses,  besides  an  immense 
variety  of  gourds,  cucumbers,  pumpkins,  and  melons  ;  of  the 
two  latter  there  is  a  sort  that  grows  wild  in  the  woods,  and 
serves  for  feeding  camels.  The  proper  melons  are  reared  in 
the  fields,  and  in  such  abundance  that  the  natives  of  all  ranks 
use  them  for  some  part  of  the  year  as  their  chief  article  of 
food.  When  nearly  ripe  the  fruit  is  pierced  into  the  pulp ; 
this  aperture  is  then  stopped  with  wax,  and  the  melon  left 
upon  the  stalk.  By  means  of  this  simple  process,  the  pulp  in 
a  few  days  is  converted  into  a  delicious  hquor.  Of  Indian 
vegetables  naturalized  in  Arabia,  Forskal  enumerates  a  Sida 

•  Much  was  anticipated  from  the  talents  and  attainments  of 
Seetzen,  who  expected  to  make  several  discoveries  in  the  min- 
eral as  well  as  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  productions  of  the 
country  ;  but  the  hopes  of  the  scientific  world  were  disappointed 
by  his  premature  death  at  Akaba  (supposed  by  poison).  A  short 
correspondence  between  him  and  M.  de  Zach  of  Saxe  Gotha 
was  translated  and  pnnted  in  1810  by  the  Palestine  Association. 


BOTANY.  367 

and  Hibiscus,  resembling  our  mallows  ;  a  Jussitea,  the  Betel, 
a  beautiful  species  of  Acanthus,  and  Bunias  somewhat  like 
our  cabbages,  the  leaves  of  which  are  eaten  boiled.  There 
are  other  Indian  plants  which  the  Arabs  eat  raw  by  way  of 
salad  ;  a  Slapcha,  a  Cleome  not  unlike  mustard  ;  a  Dolichos 
and  Glycyne,  resembling  French  beans,  are  very  common  in 
Yemen,  and  so  beautiful  when  ripe  that  they  are  strung 
into  necklaces  and  bracelets,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
There  are  some  culinary  vegetables  that  require  no  culture, 
such  as  the  Corchoriis,  the  Scelanthus,  the  leaves  of  which, 
when  boiled,  have  a  pleasing  acid  taste  ;  and  the  celebrated 
Colocasia  (a  species  of  Arum),  which  flourishes  abundantly 
in  all  marshy  places. 

Plants. — Of  these  the  variety  is  not  great ;  and  they  are 
chiefly  of  the  saline  or  succulent  kind.     The  sandy  plains 
produce  the  same  genera  as  Northern  Africa,  which  serve  as 
agreeable  objects  to  the  traveller,  as  well  as  to  alleviate  the 
thirst  of  the  camel  in  the  weary  journeys  of  the  caravans 
through  the  Desert.     Different  kinds  of  Zygnphyllum,  Hedy- 
sarum,    Culutea,    Mesembryanfhemum,    Salsola,   with  other 
prickly  herbs   and  shrubs,    are   browsed  by  these   animals, 
which  are  content  with  the  driest  and  hardest  fare.     The  ass 
eats  a  species  of  the  Scorzonera,  so  rough  and  bitter  that  even 
the  camel  refuses  to  taste  it.     There  is  a  species  of  Mesem- 
bryant hermim,  the  grain  of  which  the  Bedouins  prepare  into 
a  sort  of  bread,  and  eat  it  as  readily  as  if  it  were  made  of 
wheat.     It  is  in  the  wadis  and  recesses  of  the  mountains  that 
Arabian  botany  ought  to  be  studied  ;  and  here,  as  Burck- 
hardt  remarks  of  the  Sinai  group,  the  naturalist  would  find  a 
rich  harvest.     He  mentions  in  particular  the  tatlar  {Ocymum 
tatarhe7idi),   as  affording  the  best  possible  food  for  sheep ; 
and  the  nooman  (the  Euphorbia  retusa  of  Forskal),  bearing  a 
pretty  red  flower,  which  abounds  in  these  valleys,  and  is  seen 
among  the  cliffs  of  the  most  barren   granitic  rocks.     The 
monks  of  St.  Catherine  collect  various  herbs  when  in  full 
bloom,  which  they  dry  and  send  to  their  archbishop,  who  dis- 
tributes them  to  his  friends  and  dependants,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  possess  many  virtues  conducive  to  health.     This 
barren  peninsula  is  the  favourite  soil  of  the  rose  of  Jericho, 
anApocynum  or  dog's  bane,  the  Absinthinm  sanioniaim  judai- 
cum,  the  Asteriscus  trianthophorus,  Astragalus  perennis,  and 
several  others,  which  Shaw  has  enumerated  in  his  "  Speci- 


368  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    ARABIA.      ' 

men  Phytographiae."  The  Ocymum,  the  most  beautiful  spe- 
cies of  the  Basilic,  is  much  valued  for  its  perfume,  as  are 
also  an  Inula,  a  sort  of  elecampane  ;  a  Cacalia  from  the  heart 
of  Africa  ;  and  the  genus  Dianthera,  of  which  Forskal  dis- 
covered eight  species.  The  same  traveller  gave  the  name  of 
Moscharia  to  a  plant  of  a  new  genus,  on  account  of  its  musky 
smell.  Among  the  odoriferous  herbs  of  which  he  collected 
specimens  were  lavender,  marjoram,  lilies,  and  pinks.  The 
most  fragrant,  as  well  as  the  most  remarkable  for  their  fine 
flowers,  were  those  common  to  India  and  Arabia,  such  as  an 
Ipomcea,  resembling  the  rope-weed ;  a  Pancraticum,  with  a  . 
flower  of  the  purest  wlrite,  which  he  called  the  sea-daffodil, 
and  a  species  of  Hibiscus,  whose  flower  is  singularly  large, 
and  of  the  brightest  red  colour.  The  Arabs  are  by  no  means 
indifferent  to  the  beauties  of  Flora,  as  the  peasants  in  many- 
parts  retain  the  ancient  custom  of  crowning  themselves  on 
festive  occasions  with  chaplets  and  garlands. 

There  are  certain  plants  used  for  purposes  of  domestic 
economy,  while  others  are  universally  esteemed  for  their  me- 
dicinal qualities.     A  mean-looking  herb  like  orache  is  men- 
tioned by  Forskal,  and  ranked  by  him  as  a  distinct  genus,  by 
the  name  of  Su(zda,  which  affords  abundance  of  an  alkaline 
salt  excellent  for  whitening  linen,  and  employed  instead  of 
soap  by  the  common  people.     Burckhardt  states,  that  the 
Bedouins  of  Wady  Genne,  near  Sinai,  use  for  the  same  pur- 
pose the  herb  ajrctn,  which  they  dry  and  pound  between  two 
stones.     In  the  same  valley  he  found  several  people  occupied 
in  collecting  shrubs,  which  they  burn  into  charcoal  for  the 
Cairo  market.     The  thick  roots  of  the  rethem  (the  Genista 
rcEtan  of  Forskal),  which  grows  there  in  great  plenty,  is  the 
kind  they  prefer.     For   its  well-known  properties  in   dying, 
the  indigo-shrub  {Indigofera,  Linn.)  is  universally  cultivated 
here,  blue  being  the  favourite  colour  of  the  Arabs,     \^'e  are 
told,  that  when  this  plant  happens  to  be  scarce  the  natives 
contrive  to  extract  indigo  from  a  species  of  Polygala.     The 
common  kali  {Salsola  kali,  Linn.)  grows  in  great  abundance 
on  the  coasts  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Red  Sea.     There  is 
one  plant  which,  though  not  a  native  of  Arabia,  deserves  to 
be  noticed,  as  it  serves  a  very  important  economical  purpose 
both  in  that  country  and  in  Egypt.     It  is  a  gray-coloured  herb, 
called  sch(zbe,  an  infusion  of  which,  mixed  with  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  meal,  forms  a  leaven  for  the  fermentation  both  of  bread 


BOTANY.  369 

and  beer.  This  is  considered  essential  to  the  process  of 
brewing,  and  it  communicates  an  agreeable  taste  to  the 
liquor.  Upon  examining  this  herb,  Forskal  found  it  to  be  a 
lichen  of  the  plum-tree,  of  which  several  ship-loads  were  then 
annually  imported  from  the  Archipelago  into  Alexandria. 
Among  the  new  genera  discovered  by  the  Danish  botanist, 
several  were  distinguished  for  their  curious  properties.  The 
Polycephalus  suaveolens,  which  resembles  the  thistle,  has  at  a 
distance  the  appearance  of  a  heap  of  loose  balls  each  of 
which  encloses  a  bunch  of  flowers.  The  Ncrmm  obesum,  a 
sort  of  laurel-rose,  is  remarkable  for  a  singular  bulb  close  to 
the  earth  about  the  size  of  a  man's  head,  which  forms  all  its 
trunk,  and  out  of  which  the  branches  spring.  The  Volutella 
ayhylla  {Cassyta  Jiliformis,  Linn.)  appears  like  a  long  slen- 
der thread,  without  root  or  leaves,  which  entwines  itself  about 
trees.  It  bears,  however,  a  sort  of  flower,  and  berries  which 
are  eaten  by  children.  The  caydbcja  (called  Forskalea  by 
Linnaeus,  in  honour  of  its  discoverer)  grows  in  the  driest  parts 
of  the  country.  It  has  small  feelers,  with  which  it  fixes 
itself  so  tenaciously  upon  soft  or  smooth  substances,  that  it 
must  be  torn  in  pieces  before  it  can  be  removed. 

Arundinaceous  plants  are  necessarily  limited  to  certain 
districts.  In  most  parts  of  Yemen,  a  sort  of  panick-grass  or 
bulrush  {Panicum  and  Scirpus,  Linn.)  is  used  in  roofing 
houses  ;  and  as  rains  are  not  frequent,  these  slender  cover- 
ings are  found  to  be  sufficient.  There  is  a  particular  sort  of 
rush  on  the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea,  of  which  the  natives 
work  carpets  so  fine  that  they  are  exported  to  other  countries, 
even  as  far  as  Constantinople,  and  foma  a  considerable  branch 
of  trade.  There  is  also  a  species  of  field-reed,  which  rises 
to  the  gigantic  height  of  twenty-four  feet,  and  is  found  in 
great  abundance  in  the  district  of  Ghobebe,  near  Suez.  It  is 
an  article  of  commerce,  being  exported  to  Yemen,  where  it 
is  used  in  the  ceiling  of  houses.  In  the  same  neighbourhood 
Niebuhr  was  surprised  to  see  a  Conferva  growing  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Hammam  Faraoun,  the  temperature  of  which  was 
at  1421 '^  of  Fahrenheit's  scale.  That  the  sugar-cane  was 
from  a  very  early  period  cultivated  in  Yemen  has  been  already 
noticed.*     When  the  Arabs  conquered  Spain  and  the  Medi- 

Pliny  mentions  it.    "  Saccharon  et  Arabia  fert,  sed  lauda- 
tins  India."    Lib.  xii.  cap.  17. 


370  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

terranean  islands  they  introduced  it  among  their  other  im- 
provements. The  experiment  succeeded  ;  and  in  Sicily  the 
duty  imposed  on  its  exportation  produced  a  very  large  reve- 
nue to  the  government.  The  ancient  records  of  Calabria 
inform  us  that  seven  villages  were  entirely  employed  in  this 
commerce.  With  the  Portuguese  discoveries  the  Indian  cane 
travelled  to  America,  v\-here  its  extensive  plantations  so  low- 
ered the  price  of  sugar  that  it  became  impossible  to  support  a 
competition  ;  in  consequence  of  which  its  cultivation  was 
gradually  abandoned. 

Medicinal  Plants. — Vegetables  were  evidently  the  first 
medicines  ;  and  among  all  primitive  nations  a  traditionary 
knowledge  of  their  virtues  has  been  preserved.  The  Arabs 
used  them  with  a  wonderful  degree  of  success,  though  the 
greater  part  of  these  simple  remedies  is  a  mystery  to  stran- 
gers. It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  plants  belonging  to  such 
well-known  genera  as  Atoc  and  Euphorbia  ;  of  the  latter  the 
species  are  exceedingly  numerous  in  Arabia.  In  hot  coun- 
tries infested  with  venomous  animals,  the  inhabitants  learn 
from  experience  what  plants  are  salutary  to  man  by  operating 
as  counter-poisons  ;  among  the  Arabs  these  from  time  imme- 
morial have  been  held  in  the  greatest  esteem.  They  appear, 
however,  according  to  Forskal,  to  be  ignorant  of  the  proper- 
ties of  the  Ophiorrhiza  (serpent-root),  which  is  very  common 
on  their  hills  ;  but  they  highly  value  the  evergreen  Aristolo- 
chia,  which  they  consider,  not  only  as  a  remedy,  but  a  pre- 
servative against  the  bite  of  serpents.  \Mioever  drinks  a 
decoction  of  this  herb  six  weeks  successively  is  fortified,  in 
their  opinion,  against  all  future  danger  from  these  noxious 
reptiles.  It  is  not  improbable  that  jugglers,  who  in  the  East 
expose  themselves  so  daringly  to  be  bitten  by  serpents,  have 
recourse  to  some  such  artificial  protection.  The  prickly 
caper  is  reckoned  an  excellent  antidote  against  all  kinds  of  poi- 
sons. Senna  ( Cassia  Senna,  Linn.)  and  other  sorts  oi cassia, 
are  prescribed  in  various  diseases.  Cassia  fistula,  or  black 
cassia,  is  reckoned  by  the  Arabian  physicians  the  best  cure  for 
cholera  morbus,  and  other  affections  of  a  similar  nature, 
•which  in  warm  climates  are  peculiarly  dangerous.  Though 
its  favourite  soil  seems  to  be  Upper  Egypt,  it  abounds  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Red  Sea.  That  which  we  call  Senna  of 
Alexandria  grows  in  the  territory  of  Abu-Arish  ;  the  natives 
sell  It  at  Mecca  and  Jidda,  whence  it  passes  by  way  of  Egypt 


BOTANY.  371 

to  the  Mediterranean  ports.  There  are  several  species  ;  and, 
judging  from  the  differently-shaped  leaves,  it  would  seem 
that  what  is  imported  into  Europe  is  not  all  the  produce  of 
the  same  plant.  The  Bedouins  of  Sinai  use  coloquintida, 
which  abounds  in  all  the  wadis  of  that  peninsula,  in  syphilitic 
complaints.  They  fill  the  bulk  with  camel's  milk,  roast  it 
over  the  fire,  and  then  administer  to  the  patient  the  contents 
thus  impregnated  with  the  essence  of  the  fruit.  They  like- 
wise manufacture  it  into  tinder,  which  is  done  by  the  follow- 
ing process  : — After  roasting  the  root  in  the  ashes,  they  WTap 
it  in  a  wetted  rag  of  cotton  cloth  ;  it  is  then  pounded  between 
two  stones  ;  and  by  this  means  the  juice  is  expressed  and 
absorbed  bv  the  cloth,  which  imbibes  a  tint  of  a  dirty  blue 
colour.  The  rag,  when  dried  in  the  sun,  ignites  with  the 
slightest  spark  of  fire. 

In  the  same  districts  tobacco  is  raised  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  forms  a  profitable  branch  of  traffic.  The 
Towara  tribes  are  all  great  consumers  of  this  luxury  ;  and 
whether  they  sm.oke  or  chew,  they  always  mix  with  it  natron  or 
salt.  They  draw  their  chief  supply  from  Wady  Feiran, 
where  its  quality  is  very  strong,  and  of  the  same  species  as 
that  grown  on  the  other  mountains  of  Petraea,  near  Wady 
Mousa  and  Kerek,  which  retains  its  green  colour  even  when 
dry.  Such  is  the  currency  which  this  commodity  has  ac- 
quired in  trade,  that  the  moud,  or  measure  of  tobacco,  forms 
the  standard  by  which  the  Tebna  Arabs  buy  and  sell  minor 
articles  among  themselves.*  Hemp,  as  has  been  already 
observed,  is  cultivated  and  used  as  a  narcotic  over  all  Arabia. 
The  flowers,  or  small  leaves  surrounding  the  seed,  when 
mixed  with  tobacco,  are  called  hashish  ;  and  with  this  the 
common  people  fill  their  pipes.  The  higher  classes  eat  it  in 
a  jelly  or  paste  called  maujoun,  and  made  in  the  following 
manner  : — A  quantity  of  the  leaves  is  boiled  with  butter  for 
several  hours,  and  then  put  under  a  press  until  the  juice 
exudes,  which  is  mixed  with  honey  and  other  sweet  drugs, 
and  publicly  exposed  for  sale  in  shops  kept  for  the  purpose. 

*  A  moud,  accordmg  to  Burckhardt,  is  equal  to  18  or  19  lbs. 
English ;  3^  rotolo  (about  5J  lbs.  each)  make  a  moud,  and  80 
mouds  are  a  gharara.  The  rotolo  or  pound  of  Mecca  contains 
144  drachms  ;  at  Jidda  it  is  nearly  double.  The  erdeb  is  equiva- 
lent to  about  15  English  bushels.  At  Mecca  it  is  divided  into 
50  keile  or  measures,  and  at  Medina  into  96. 


372  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

The  hashish  paste  is  poUtely  termed  bast  (cheerfulness),  and 
the  venders  of  it  are  called  basti,  or  cheerful-makers.  It 
exhilarates  the  spirits,  and  excites  the  imagination  as  power- 
fully as  opium.  Many  persons  of  the  first  rank  use  it  m  one 
shape  or  other  ;  and  there  are  some  who  mix  with  it  seeds 
of  the  benj,  which  is  brought  from  Syria. 


SECTION    IV. TREES    AND    SHRUBS. 

Forests  are  neither  common  nor  extensive  in  Arabia ;  they 
are  only  to  be  seen  in  the  wadis,  and  where  the  hills  retain 
enough  of  earth  for  vegetation.  In  general,  however,  trees 
are  either  absolutely  unknown,  or  at  least  different  from  those 
of  the  same  genera  and  species  in  Europe.  As  the  interior 
has  been  little  explored  by  travellers,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
we  should  remain  comparatively  ignorant  of  its  indigenous 
productions.  But  from  what  Forskal  accomplished  in  his 
hasty  excursion,  it  would  appear  that  Yemen  possesses  a 
great  variety  of  trees,  as  these  alone  comprehend  more  than 
half  of  the  new  genera  proposed  by  that  naturalist.  He 
hkewise  enumerates  eighteen  others  which  he  saw,  but  whose 
genus  he  had  no  opportunity  of  ascertaining.  Of  most  of 
these  he  merely  learned  the  Arabic  names  and  a  few  of  their 
properties.  Nncman,  a  native  of  the  Coffee  Mountains,  is 
often  confounded  with  the  cassia-tree.  Bceha  and  anas  are 
common  in  the  hills  ;  their  juice  is  narcotic  and  poisonous. 
Schnmama  bears  a  fruit  that  tastes  and  smells  like  a  lemon  ; 
gharib  el  bceke  abounds  in  Abu-Arish,  and  distils  an  agreeable 
substance,  of  which  the  birds  appeared  to  be  particularly 
fond.  Segleir,  in  the  same  district,  bears  leaves,  the  sap  of 
which  when  expressed  is  esteemed  an  excellent  remedy  in 
cases  of  weak  sight.  In  Yemen  Forskal  saw  two  trees,  one 
of  which  resembled  the  lemon,  and  the  other  the  apple-tree  ; 
but  the  inhabitants  knew  neither  their  names  nor  their  quali- 
ties. The  sym  el  horat  (or  poison  of  fishes)  is  the  fruit  of 
an  unknown  tree  in  Southern  Arabia,  and  exported  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  Fishes  swallow  it  eagerly,  after  which 
they  float  in  a  state  of  seeming  intoxication  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  are  easily  taken.  Among  the  new  genera 
described  by  the  Danish  traveller,  and  considered  peculiar  to 
Arabia,  are  the  katha^  el  kaya,  keura,  and  onkoba.  The 
kathoy  which  is  improvable  by  cultivation,   is  commonly 


FRUIT-TREES  373 

planted  on  the  hills  among  the  coffee-shrubs.  The  natives 
constantly  chew  the  buds  of  this  tree,  which  they  call  kuad, 
and  to  which  they  ascribe  the  virtues  of  assisting  digestion, 
and  of  fortifying  the  constitution  against  infectious  distempers. 
The  taste,  according  to  Niebuhr,  is  insipid,  and  the  only 
effects  he  experienced  from  eating  them  was  the  interruption 
of  sleep.  The  kuera  and  el  kaya  are  celebrated  for  their 
perfume.  The  former  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  palm, 
and  produces  flowers  of  a  rich  and  delicious  odour.  They 
are  scarce,  and  draw  a  high  price  ;  but  a  small  quantity,  if 
preserved  in  a  cool  place,  will  continue  for  a  long  time  to 
diffuse  its  fragrance  through  a  whole  apartment.  The  latter 
is  common  on  the  hills  of  Yemen ;  the  women  steep  its  fruit 
in  water,  which  they  use  for  washing  and  perfuming  the  hair. 
The  onkoha  is  a  large  tree,  yielding  an  insipid  fruit,  which 
children  eat.  Of  the  khadara,  the  antura,  and  the  kulhamia 
we  know  nothing,  except  that  they  are  new  species  discov- 
ered by  Forskal,  and  that  their  wood  is  used  in  building.  The 
chestnut  and  sycamore  gi'ow  to  a  gigantic  size  in  Hejaz.  The 
Arabs,  however,  have  little  timber  suited  for  this  purpose, 
their  trees  being  generally  of  a  light  porous  texture.  The 
skeura,  a  new  genus,  which  grows  on  the  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea,  is  so  soft  that  it  is  entirely  useless.  The  el  all,  which 
abounds  in  Nejed,  resembles  the  oak,  and  is  employed  in  the 
construction  of  houses.  The  samar,  sarch,  salem,  wahat, 
and  kathad  serve  only  for  firewood  ;  their  leaves  afford  shel- 
ter for  the  cattle,  and  form  the  chief  nourishment  of  the 
camels. 

Fruit-trees. — Most  of  the  fruit-trees  reared  in  the  gardens 
and  hot-houses  of  Europe  are  indigenous  to  Arabia.  The 
apple,  pear,  peach,  apricot,  almond,  quince,  citron,  pome- 
granate, lemon,  orange,  olive,  mulberry,  and  filberts  are  to  be 
met  with  in  the  wadis  and  irrigated  plains,  from  the  borders 
of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Euphrates  and  the  shores  of  Oman.  *" 
The  Arabs  likewise  eat  the  fruit  of  several  common  shrubs, 
such  as  Asclepins  and  the  Rhamnus ;  but  they  have  a  spe- 
cies of  pear  and  a  cornel  peculiar  to  themselves.     From  com- 

*  Burckhardt  doubts  whether  apples  or  pears  grow  in  Arabia 
(Travels,  p.  367) ;  but  he  seems  to  have  forgotten  that  he  men- 
tions them  elsewhere  among  the  fi-uits  m  the  garden  of  the  con- 
vent at  Mount  Sinai.  Niebuhr  speaks  of  them  as  common  in 
Yemen,  tame  iii.  130. 

Vol.  II.— I  i 


374  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

mon  oranges,  cut  through  the  middle  while  green,  dried  in 
the  air,  and  steeped  forty  days  in  oil,  they  prepare  an  essence 
famous  among  old  women  for  restoring  a  fresh  black  colour 
to  gray  hairs.*  Though  wine  is  forbidden,  they  plant  vines, 
and  have  a  great  variety  of  grapes,  a  small  kind  of  which, 
without  stones,  called  zebib  or  kiscfimis,  they  dry  and  export 
in  considerable  quantities.  They  also  prepare  from  mint  a 
syrup  known  by  the  name  of  dubs  or  debs,  which  they  find  a 
lucrative  article  of  commerce. 

The  Banians  have  imported  many  fruit-trees  from  India, 
which  have  all  become  naturalized  in  their  adopted  country  ; 
such  are  the  banana  {Mut^a,  Linn.),  the  mango  {Mangifera 
indira,  Linn.),  the  papaya  {Canca  papaya,  Linn.),  a  Cissus, 
an  excellent  counterpoison,  the  cocoa,  and  the  Indian  fig- 
tree  {Ficus  reiigiosa).     The  singular  property  that  the  latter 
possesses  of  propagating  itself  by  means  of  filaments  shoot- 
ing from  its  boughs,  which  take  root  on  reaching  the  ground 
and  spring  up  into  new  trunks,  is  well  known.     Forskal  saw 
more  than  a  dozen  species  of  fig-trees,  not  one  of  which  are 
mentioned  by  Linnaeus  ;  but  their  fruit  was  far  from  being 
agreeable,  and  seldom  eaten  as  food.     The  bark  of  one  spe- 
cies was  used  in  tanning  leather  ;  and  the  leaves  of  another 
were   so  rough  that  they  served  for  cleaning  and  polishing 
iron.     At  Beit  el  Fakih  he  found  some  fine  ornamental  trees, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  of  Indian  origin  ;  but,  as  their  char- 
acteristics were  different  from  those  of  any  other  known  spe- 
cies, he  classed  them  in  two  new  genera,  under  the  names 
of  Hypcraiilhera   and  Binectaria  (Mimusops  obtuaifolia  of 
botanists). 

By  far  the  most  common  and  important  of  the  palm  tribe 
is  the  date-tree,  the  fruit  of  which  constitutes  the  staple 
nourishment  of  the  Arabs  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year.  In  Hejaz  the  places  chiefly  renowned  for  this  valu- 
able production  are  the  gardens  of  Medina,  and  the  valleys 
at  Safra  and  Jedeida  on  the  route  to  Mecca.  Almost  every 
district,  however,  has  its  own  variety,  which  grows  nowhere 

*  From  the  name  Portvghnv,  given  to  the  orange  both  in  Ara- 
bia and  Italy,  travellers  nnd  naturalists  have  supposed  that  it 
was  brought  into  P>uro[e  by  the  Portuguese.  Tliis  is  a  mistake. 
The  orange  was  cultivated  by  the  Arabs  in  Sicily  and  Spain 
many  centuries  before  the  Portuguese  visited  the  East  — See  p. 
102  of  this  volume.      Cod.  Diploin.  Arab.  Sicil.^  tome  i.  p.  114. 


THE    DATE-TREE.  375 

else.  Burckhardt  was  informed  that  upwards  of  a  hundred 
different  sorts  grew  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Me- 
dina ;  and  a  native  historian  in  his  description  of  that  city 
has  enumerated  one  hundred  and  thirty.  The  cheapest  and 
most  common  kinds  are  the  jebeli,  the  kcloua,  the  heleya,  a 
very  small  date  not  larger  than  a  mulberry  ;  it  has  its  name 
from  its  extraordinary  sweetness,  in  which  it  equals  the 
finest  figs  from  Smyrna  ;  and,  like  them,  when  dried  is  cov- 
ered with  a  saccharine  crust.  This  was  the  date  with  which 
Mohammed  is  alleged  to  have  performed  a  very  great  mira- 
cle, by  planting  a  kernel  in  the  earth,  which  instantly  took 
root,  grew  up,  and  in  five  minutes  became  a  full-grown  tree 
loaded  with  fruit.  Another  miracle  is  related  of  the  species 
called  d  syhani,  which  hailed  the  Prophet  as  he  passed  under 
it  with  a  loud  Salaam  Aleikoom  !  The  birni  is  esteemed 
the  most  wholesome  and  the  easiest  of  digestion  ;  Moham- 
med, with  whom  it  was  a  favourite,  recommended  the  Arabs 
to  eat  seven  of  them  every  morning  before  breakfast.  The 
jebeli,  which  is  scarce,  is  about  one  inch  in  breadth,  three 
m  length,  and  has  a  very  agreeable  taste.  The  price  of  the 
birni  is  twenty  paras,  or  2A)83d.  per  keile  (a  measure  con- 
taining about  120  dates),  while  the  jebeli  are  sold  at  the  rate 
of  eight  for  the  same  money.  They  are  in  great  request 
with  the  hajjis,  who  always  carry  some  of  them  home  as 
presents  to  their  friends  :  they  are  bought  in  small  boxes 
holding  about  a  hundred.  One  species  of  the  Medina  date 
remains  perfectly  green  even  when  ripe  and  dried  ;  another 
retains  a  bright  saffron  colour.  These  are  threaded  on 
strings,  and  worn  as  ornaments  by  children,  or  sold  under 
the  name  of  Kfilayd  es  Sham,  or  Necklaces  of  the  North. 
Dates  are  dressed  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  they  are  boiled, 
stewed  with  butter,  or  reduced  to  a  thick  pulp  by  simmering 
in  water,  over  which  honey  is  poured.  It  is  a  saying  of  the 
Arabs,  "that  a  good  housewife  may  furnish  her  husband 
every  day  for  a  month  with  a  dish  of  dates  differently  pre- 
pared." 

The  many  purposes  to  which  almost  every  part  of  this  tree 
is  applied  have  been  mentioned  by  several  travellers.  The 
timber  serves  for  rafters  or  firewood,  the  fibres  for  cordage, 
and  the  leaves  for  cages,  boxes,  bedsteads,  baskets,  cradles, 
and  other  articles  of  the  hurdle  species.  The  Hejazees,  like 
the  Eg}'ptians,  make  use  of  the  leaves,  the  outer  and  inner 


376  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF   ARABIA. 

bark,  and  the  fleshy  substance  at  the  root  of  the  leaves  where 
they  spring  from  the  trunk.     The  kernels,  after  being  soaked 
for  two  days  in  water  until  they  become  soft,  are  given  as 
food  to  camels,  cows,  and  sheep,  instead  of  barley,  and  are 
said  to  be  much  more  nutritive  than  that  grain.     In  Nejed 
the  kernels  are  ground  for  the  same  purpose  ;  but  this  is  not 
done  in  Hejaz.     At  Medina  there  are  shops  where  nothing 
else  is  sold  but  date-stones  ;  and  in  all  the  main  streets  beg- 
gars are  occupied  in  picking  up  those  that  are  thrown  away. 
The  fruit  does  not  all  ripen  at  the  same   time,  each  species 
having  its  particular  season.     The  harvest  at  Medina  con- 
tinues for  two  or  three  months  (from  July  till  September), 
but  dates  are  eaten  by  the  beginning  of  June.     This  epoch 
is  expected  with  as  much  anxiety,  and  attended  with  the 
same  general  rejoicings,  as  the  vintage  or  the   harvest-home 
in  Europe.     "  What  is  the  price  of  dates  at  Mecca  or  Me- 
dina ?"  is  always  the  first  question  asked  by  a  Bedouin  who 
meets  a  passenger  on  the  road.     A  failure  of  the  crop,  either 
from  the  ravages  of  the  locusts  or  the  exhaustion  of  the 
trees,  which  are  seldom  known  to  produce  abundantly  more 
than  three  or  four  successive  years,  causes  a   general  dis- 
tress, and   spreads  a  universal   gloom   over  the    inhabitants. 
The  process  of  impregnating  this  tree  artificially,  by  scatter- 
ing the  pollen  over  the  female  flowers,  is   still  practised  by 
the  modern  Arabs,  exactly  as  described  by  Pliny  and  Ammi- 
anus.     The  date-groves  around  Medina  are   cultivated  by 
farmers,  called  nowakhcle,  who  were  assessed  by  the  Waha- 
bees  according  to  the  number  of  trees  m  each  field.     For 
every  erdeb  of  dates  the  Nejed  tax-gatherers  levied  their 
quota  either  in  kind  or  in  money  according  to  the  current 
market-price.     At  Safra  the  plantations,  which  extend  to  four 
miles  in  length,  belong  partly  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  vil- 
lage and   partly  to  the   neighbouring  Bedouins   (the    Beui 
Salem).     Every  small  grove  is  enclosed  by  a  mud  or  stone 
wall,  and  interspersed  with  hamlets  or  low  insulated  huts. 
The  trees  pass  from  one  individual  to  another  in  the  course 
of  trade  ;  they  are  sold  singly,  according  to  their  respective 
value,  and  often  constitute  the  dowry  paid  by  the  suitor  to 
the  girl's  father  on  marrying  her.     The  sand  is  heaped  up 
round  their  roots,  and  must  be  renewed  every  year,  as  it  is 
usually  washed  away  by  the  torrents  from  the  hills,  which 
sometimes  form  a  brook  twenty  feet  broad  and  three  or  four 


MANNA.  377 

deep.  Here  the  Wahabees  imposed  heavy  assessments, 
taxing  not  only  the  produce  of  the  groves  and  gardens,  but 
the  very  water  used  in  irrigating  them.  In  Wady  Feiran 
Burckhardt  mentions  the  jamya  as  the  best  species,  of  which 
the  monks  of  Sinai  send  large  boxes  annually  to  Constanti- 
nople as  presents,  after  having  taken  out  the  kernel  and  put 
an  almond  in  its  place.  Among  these  date-groves  he  ob- 
served several  doun-trees,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
peninsula.  They  belong  to  the  Tebna  Arabs,  and  during  the 
five  or  six  weeks  of  harvest  the  valley  is  crowded  with  peo- 
ple, who  erect  temporary  huts  of  palm-branches,  and  pass 
their  time  Ik  great  conviviality.  At  Dahab  the  plantations 
have  a  very  diiferent  appearance  from  those  in  Hejaz.  The 
lower  branches,  instead  of  being  taken  off  annually,  are  suf- 
fered to  remain,  and  hang  down  to  the  ground,  forming  an 
almost  impenetrable  barrier  round  the  tree,  the  top  of  which 
only  is  crowned  with  green  leaves. 

Manna. — The  true  nature  and  origin  of  this  substance, 
celebrated  as  the  miraculous  food  of  the  Israelites,  have  not 
yet  been  very  satisfactorily  ascertained.     The  observations 
made  by  travellers  and  naturalists  do  not  accord  with  the 
Scripture  nairative,  nor  do  they  afford  any  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  as  recorded  by  Moses  (Exod.  xvi.,  Numb,  xi.) 
That  it  is  a  vegetable  production  is  generally  admitted.    Rau- 
wolf  has  described  a  thorny  plant  called  algul,  which  yields 
a  species  of  manna  ;  and  Michaelis  mentions  another  under 
the  name  of  alhagc.     Niebuhr  neglected  to  inquire  after  this 
substance,  and  what  he  heard  from  a  monk  near  Suez  was  an 
idle  legend  not  worth  repetition.     He  was  told  that  in  Meso- 
potamia manna  is  produced  by  several  trees  of  the  oak  genus ; 
that  it  covers  the  leaves  like  flour,  and  is  obtained  by  shaking 
the  branches.     July  or  August  are  the  months  in  which  it  is 
gathered,  and  it  is  found  in  greater  abundance  in  moist  than 
in  dry  seasons.     When  fresh  it  is  white  and  saccharine,  but 
it  melts  in  the  sun.     At  Bussora  this  traveller  was  shown 
another  species  called  taranjubil,  which  is  gathered  from  a 
prickly  shrub  near  Ispahan  :  the  grains  were  round  and  yel- 
lowish.    Both  of  these  sorts  were  used  by  the  inhabitants  as 
sugar  in  preparing  several  dishes,  especially  pastry.     Burck- 
hardt is  clearly  of  opinion  that  the  manna  of  Scripture  is 
that  which  distils  from  the   tar/a  or  tamarisk- tree,  a  shrub 
abounding  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.     This  remarkable  fact, 

Ii2 


378  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

he  observes,  remained  unknown  in  Europe  until  it  was  first 
mentioned  by  Seetzen.  It  is  called  mann  by  the  Bedouins, 
and  accurately  resembles  that  described  by  the  Jewish  his- 
torian.* In  the  month  of  June  it  drops  from  the  prickles  of 
the  tamarisk  upon  the  fallen  leaves  and  twigs,  which  always 
cover  the  ground  beneath  the  branches,  in  its  natural  state. 
The  Arabs  collect  it  in  the  morning,  when  it  is  coagulated, 
but  it  dissolves  as  soon  as  the  sun  shines  upon  it.  They 
clean  away  the  leaves  and  dirt  which  adhere  to  it ;  and,  after 
being  boiled,  it  is  strained  through  a  coarse  piece  of  cloth 
and  put  into  leathern  skins,  in  which  it  is  preserved  till  the 
following  year.  They  do  not  seem  to  make  it  into  cakes  or 
loaves  ;  but  they  dip  their  morsel  into  it,  or  pour  it  as  they  do 
honey  over  their  unleavened  bread.  It  is  found  only  m  sea- 
sons when  copious  rains  have  fallen,  and  sometimes  it  is  not 
produced  at  all.  When  kept  in  a  cool  temperature  it  is  hard 
and  solid,  but  becomes  soft  if  held  m  the  hand  or  exposed  to 
the  sun.  The  colour  is  a  dirty  yellow  ;  but  the  taste  is 
agreeable,  somewhat  aromatic,  and  sweet  as  honey.  If 
eaten  in  considerable  quantities  it  is  said  to  be  slightly  pur- 
gative. The  Bedouins  esteem  it  as  the  greatest  dainty 
which  their  country  affords  :  the  produce,  however,  even  in 
the  best  years,  is  trifling,  perhaps  not  exceeding  500  or  600 
pounds.  The  harvest  is  usually  in  June,  and  lasts  about  six 
weeks.  Though  the  tamarisk  abounds  in  Hejaz,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  in  every  part  of  Arabia,  Burckhardt  never  heard 
of  its  yielding  manna  except  in  Mount  Sinai.  He  was  in- 
formed that  in  Asia  Minor  near  Erzeroum,  the  kind  men- 
tioned by  Niebuhr  was  still  collected  from  the  tree  which 
produces  the  galls  ;  but  this  is  probably  the  gum-tragacanth, 
which  is  obtained  from  a  spinous  shrub  of  the  genus  Astra- 
galus, and  which  is  so  strong  that  a  drachm  will  give  to  a  pint 
of  water  the  consistency  of  a  s}'rup.  This  gum  is  indigenous 
in  Natoha,  Crete,  and  Greece.  There  is,  however,  a  confu- 
sion in  his  diffeient  accounts  of  the  manna,  which  he  appears 

*  Josephus  derives  the  name  from  the  Hebrew  particle  man, 
which,  he  says,  means  What  is  it  ?  this  being  the  exclamation 
of  the  Jews  when  they  firsl  beheld  that  divine  and  wonderful 
food.— (Antiq.  b.  iii.  c.  1.)  Whiston,  in  a  note  on  the  text, 
rather  thinks  it  comes  from  the  verb  mannah,  to  divide ;  and 
mentions  that  in  an  old  heathen  writer,  Artapanus,  it  is  com* 
pared  "  to  oatmeal,  and  like  snOw  in  colour." 


MANNA.  379 

sometimes  to  have  mistaken  for  other  vegetable  substances. 
The  modern  officinal  drug  sold  under  this  name  comes  from 
Italy  and  Sicily,  where  it  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  ash, 
with  a  leaf  resembling  that  of  the  acacia.     The  Calabrian 
manna  is  said  to  exude  after  the  puncture  of  an  insect, — a 
species  of  grasshopper  that  sucks  the  plant ;  and  this  fact 
led  Michaelis  to  propose  the  question  to  the  Danish  travel- 
lers, whether  the  Arabian  species  might  not  be  produced  in 
a  similar  manner.     But  notwithstandmg  the  identity  of  the 
name,  the  resemblance  in  the  description,  and  the  concur- 
rence of  learned  naturalists,  it  is  impossible  to  reconcile  the 
manna  of  Scripture  with  any  species  of  vegetable  gum,  much 
less  to  explain  the  preternatural  circumstances  connected 
with  its  appearance.     We  are    expressly  told   that  it  was 
rained  from  heaven ;  that  it  lay  on  the  ground  when  the  dew 
was  exhaled,  round  and  small  as  the  hoar-frost,  like  coriander- 
■seed,  and  its  colour  like  a  pearl ;  that  it  fell  but  six  days  in 
the  week  ;  that  it  became  offensive  and  bred  worms  if  kept 
above  one  day  ;  that   the   double   quantity  provided  for  the 
Sabbath  kept  sweet  for  two  days  ;  that  it  continued  fulling 
for  forty  years,  but  ceased  on  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites  at 
the  borders  of  Canaan.     These  and  other  facts  all  indicate 
4;he  extraordinary  nature  of  the  production  ;  and  in  no  one 
^respect  do  they  correspond  with  the  distillations  of  the  tarfa, 
the   gharrab,  or   the    talh-tree.     These  gums  are  collected 
only  for  about   a  month  in  the   year  ;  they  do  not  admit  of 
Reiner  ground  in  a  hand-mill,  nor  baked  ;   they  are  not  sub- 
ject to  putrefaction  if  kept,  nor  are  they  peculiar  to  the  Pe- 
traean  wilderness  ;  besides,  the  constant  and  daily  supply  in  a 
desert  often  barren  of  all  vegetation  must  have  been  impos- 
sible, except  on  the  supposition  that  the  trees  accompanied 
them  on  their  march.     Whatever  the  manna  was,  it  was 
-obviously  a  substitute  for  food  ;  and  the  peculiarities  con- 
nected with  its  regular  continuance,  its  corruption,  and  peri- 
•odical  suspension  are  facts  not  less  extraordinary  than  the 
■mysterious  nature  of  the  substance  itself.     It  is  in  vain  to  at- 
tempt any  explanation  of  these  phenomena  by  natural  causes. 
A  skeptical  philosophy  may  succeed  in  reconcihng  preter- 
natural appearances  with  its  own  notions  of  probability  ;  but 
this  gives  not  a  particle  of  additional  evidence  to  the  credibility 
of  the  sacred  narrative.     The  whole  miracle,  as  related  by 
Mosesj  admits  but  of  one  solution — the  interposition  of  a 


380  NATURAL  HISTORY   OF    ARABIA. 

Divine  power.  As  for  local  traditions  or  moddm  practices, 
these,  we  have  already  shown,  are  unsafe  guides  in  matters 
of  history  ;  much  less  can  they  be  admitted  as  authorities  in 
support  of  revealed  truth. 

Gum- Arabic. — According  to  Burckhardt  this  substance  is 
the  produce  of  the  talh,  which  he  calls  the  gum-arabic-tree. 
In  describing  Wady  Lahyane,  between  Akaba  and  Gaza,  he 
says  that  the  Bedouins  feed  their  camels  upon  the  thorny 
branches  of  this  shrub,  of  which  they  are  extremely  fond. 
In  summer  they  collect  the  gum,  which  they  sell  at  Cairo  for 
about  12.9.  or  155.  per  cwt.  The  taste  he  represents  as  in- 
sipid, but  he  was  assured  it  was  very  nutritive.  Of  this  lat- 
ter fact  Hasselquist  mentions  a  striking  confirmation,  in  the 
case  of  an  Abyssinian  caravan  crossing  the  African  desert  to 
Cairo  in  1750.  Finding  their  provisions  consumed  while 
they  had  yet  sixty  days  to  travel,  they  had  recourse  to  gum- 
arabic,  of  which  they  carried  a  considerable  quantity  with 
them  ;  and  upon  this  alone  1000  persons  subsisted  for  two 
months.  Burckhardt,  however,  in  another  place  says,  that 
in  Wady  Nebk  he  found  the  acacia-trees  thickly  covered 
with  this  gum,  which  the  Towara  tribe  sell  at  Cairo,  though 
its  quality  is  inferior  to  that  from  Sennaar  or  Soudan.  The 
Bedouins  use  it  as  a  substitute  for  water.  Some  have  sup- 
posed the  gum-arabic-tree  to  be  the  Acacia  vera  (the  Mi- 
mosa NiloLica.,  Linn.),  which  Hasselquist  says  the  Egyptian 
Arabs  call  charrud  (perhaps  the  gharrab  of  Burckhardt),  and 
which  he  represents  as  also  producing  the  thus  or  frankin- 
cense, and  the  Succus  acacice.  The  thus  he  describes  as 
pellucid  and  white,  or  rather  colourless ;  while  the  gum  is  of 
a  brownish  or  dirty  yellow.  This  exactly  agrees  with  the 
accounts  given  of  the  manna  ;  hence  it  is  probable  these 
substances  are  nearly,  if  not  altogether,  identical.  In  col- 
lecting the  leaves  of  the  acacia  for  the  use  of  their  camels, 
the  Bedouins  spread  a  straw  mat  under  the  tree,  and  beat 
the  boughs  with  long  sticks,  when  the  youngest  and  freshest 
buds  are  brought  down  ;  and  these  are  sold  in  the  markets 
as  fodder. 

Honey  is  an  article  much  used  in  Arabian  cookery,  and 
found  in  various  districts  of  the  country.  The  mountains 
near  Safra  swarm  with  bees,  of  which  the  Bedouins  take  pos- 
session by  placing  wooden  hives  upon  the  ground.  This 
honey  is  of  die  finest  quality,  white,  and  clear  as  water.     One 


SHRUBS.  -  381 

of  the  most  interesting  productions  of  Wady  Ghor  is  the 
beyrouk  honey  (the  Assal  beyrouk  of  the  Arabs),  which 
Burckhardt  supposed  to  be  manna.  It  was  described  to  him 
as  a  juice  dropping  from  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  the  gharrab- 
tree,  about  the  height  of  an  olive,  with  leaves  like  those  of 
the  poplar,  only  somewhat  broader.  The  honey  is  sweet 
when  fresh,  but  turns  sour  when  kept  for  two  days.  It  is 
gathered  in  May  and  June,  either  from  the  leaves,  on  which 
it  collects  like  dew,  or  from  the  ground  under  the  tree.  The 
colour  is  brownish,  or  rather  of  a  grayish  hue. 

Shrubs. — The  deserts  and  mountains  of  Arabia  produce 
a  variety  of  shrubs,  with  the  uses  and  qualities  of  which  we 
are  but  imperfectly  acquainted,  and  many  of  their  names 
might  have  remained  utterly  unknown  had  they  not  been  acci- 
dentally noticed  by  the  passmg  traveller.  Several  new  gen- 
era were  discovered  by  Forskal,  but  he  had  little  opportunity 
for  examining  their  properties.  Of  the  mcEnia,  kadaba,  and 
masa  nothing  particular  has  been  recorded.  The  fruit  of 
the  sadada  is  eaten  ;  and  from  the  berry  of  the  kebulha  is 
extracted  a  very  strong  kind  of  brandy,  the  acid  taste  of 
which  is  counteracted  by  a  mixture  of  sugar.  Dolichos,  a 
species  of  that  false  phaseolus  already  mentioned,  grows  up 
to  a  bushy  shrub,  so  as  to  form  hedges  in  a  short  time  which 
are  almost  impenetrable.  The  wood  of  the  Cynanchumj 
called  march  by  the  Arabs,  is  used  for  fuel  ;  it  has  all  the 
lightness  and  combustibility  of  tinder  ;  and  Forskal  observed 
that  the  peasants  near  Loheia  kindled  it  by  rubbing  one  piece 
against  another.  The  nebtk  {Rhamnus  Lotus),  the  fruit  of 
which  the  Arabs  sometimes  eat  in  preference  to  dates,  is  very 
common  in  the  plain  of  Medina  ;  large  quantities  of  it  are  ex- 
posed in  the  market,  where  a  person  may  obtain  enough  to 
satisfy  himself  far  a  pennyworth  of  corn,  which  is  readily 
taken  in  exchange  instead  of  money.  The  inhabitants  of 
Wady  Feiran  grind  the  dried  fruit  together  with  the  stone, 
and  preserve  the  meal,  which  they  call  bryse,  in  leathern  skins 
in  the  same  way  as  the  Nubian  Bedouins  do.  It  forms  an 
excellent  provision  for  journeying  in  the  desert,  as  it  only' 
requires  the  addition  of  buttermilk  to  make  a  m.ost  nourishing, 
pleasant,  and  refreshing  diet.  Among  the  rocks  of  Mount 
St.  Catherine,  Burckhardt  observed,  besides  other  shrubs,  the 
Sorour  nearly  in  full  bloom  ;  its  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a 
small  cherry,  and  has  very  much  the  flavour  of  the  straw- 


382  NATURAL  HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

berry.  In  Wady  Mousa  junipers  grow  in  considerable  num- 
bers. The  tamarisk  and  talh-tree  abound  in  the  same  region. 
The  tree  called  asheyr  by  the  Arabs  is  very  common  in  Wady 
Ghor.  It  bears  a  fruit  of  a  reddish  yellow  colour,  about  three 
inches  in  diameter,  which  contains  a  white  substance  resem- 
bling the  finest  silk,  and  enveloping  the  seeds.  The  Bedouins 
collect  this  stuff,  and  twist  it  into  matches  for  their  muskets, 
preferring  it  to  the  common  match,  as  it  ignites  more  readily. 
Burckhardt  says  that  more  than  twenty  camel-loads  of  this 
substance  could  be  annually  procured,  and  perhaps  might  be 
found  useful  in  the  silk  and  cotton  manufactures  of  Europe. 
.This  tree,  when  incisions  are  made  into  the  branches,  yields 
a  white  juice,  which  the  natives  collect,  by  putting  a  hollow 
reed  into  the  aperture,  and  sell  to  the  druggists  at  Jerusalem, 
who  are  said  to  use  it  in  medicine  as  a  strong  cathartic.  In 
the  gardens  of  Medina  the  ithcU  a  species  of  tamarisk,  is 
cultivated  for  its  hard  wood,  of  which  the  Arabs  make  camels' 
saddles,  and  every  utensil  that  requires  strong  handles.  The 
burial-grounds  round  Mecca  are  adorned  with  a  low  shrub  of 
the  aloe  genus  called  sahber  (or  patience),  which  is  planted 
at  the  extremity  of  almost  every  tomb  opposite  the  epitaph. 
It  is  an  evergreen,  requiring  very  little  water  ;  and  is  chosen 
for  this  purpose  in  allusion  to  the  patience  necessary  in  wait- 
ing for  the  resurrection.  Of  the  Mimosa  genus  there  are 
several  species  in  Arabia.  One  of  these  {Mimosa  selam) 
produces  splendid  flowers  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  with 
which  the  natives  crown  their  heads  on  festive  occasions. 
The  flowers  of  another  {Mimosa  Lebheck  ;  Acacia  Lebbeck, 
Linn.)  are  no  less  remarkable  for  a  fine  silky  tuft  formed  by 
their  pistils.  There  is  another  so  sensitive  that  it  droops  its 
branches  whenever  any  person  approaches  it,  appearing  to 
salute  those  who  retire  under  its  shade.  This  mute  hos- 
pitality has  so  endeared  it  to  the  Arabs,  that  the  injuring  or 
cutting  of  it  down  is  strictly  prohibited.  The  pod  of  the 
si/ale  and  the  tender  shoots  of  the  branches  serve  as  fodder 
for  cattle,  while  the  bark  is  used  in  tanning  leather.  The 
leaves  of  the  Mimosa  orfora  {Acacia  horrida,  Linn.)  preserve 
camels'  milk  sweet  for  several  days  ;  the  smoke  of  the  wood 
is  said  to  expel  a  worm,  which  fixes  itself  in  the  flesh  of  the 
human  neck  and  produces  epileptic  fits.  The  tamarisk  is 
cultivated  as  an  object  equally  useful  and  agreeable  ;  its 
shade  is  a  protection  from  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun ;  and 


BALSAM    OF    MECCA.  383 

its  graceful  figure  adorns  the  scenery  of  the  country.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  common  productions  of  the  desert  from 
Mecca  to  the  Euphrates,  and  m  the  driest  season,  when  all 
vegetation  around  is  withered,  it  never  loses  its  verdure. 

The  balessan  or  celebrated  balsam  of  Mecca  (the  balm  of 
Gilead  in  Scripture)  has  been  already  noticed  in  the  Botany 
of  Abyssinia.  According  to  Burckhardt,  Safra  and  Bedr  are 
the  only  places  in  Hejaz  where  it  can  be  obtained  in  a  pure 
state.  The  tree  from  which  it  is  collected  (called  by  the 
Arabs  heskern)  grows  on  Gebel  Sobh  and  the  neighbouring 
mountains,  and  is  said  to  be  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high,  with 
a  smooth  trunk  and  thin  bark.  In  the  middle  of  summer 
small  incisions  are  made  in  the  rind  ;  from  these  the  juice 
immediately  issues,  which  is  then  taken  otf  with  the  thumb- 
nail and  put  into  a  vessel.  The  gum  appears  to  be  of  two 
kinds  ;  one  of  a  white  colour,  which  is  most  esteemed,  the 
other  of  a  yellowish-white.  The  latter,  which  the  Bedouins 
bring  to  market  in  small  sheepskin  bottles,  has  a  bitter  taste 
and  a  strong  turpentine  smell.  The  people  of  Safra  gen- 
erally adulterate  it  with  sesamum-oil  and  tar.  When  they 
try  its  purity,  they  dip  their  finger  into  it  and  apply  it  to  the 
fire  ;  if  it  burn  without  giving  pain  or  leaving  a  mark,  they 
judge  it  to  be  of  good  quality  ; — if  otherwise,  they  consider 
it  bad.  The  test  mentioned  by  Bruce  of  letting  a  drop  fall 
into  a  cup  of  water,  when  the  good  falls  coagulated  to  the 
bottom  and  the  bad  swims  on  the  surface,  is  unknown  to  the 
Hejazees.  The  Bedouins,  who  sell  it  to  the  Safra  Arabs,  de- 
mand two  or  three  dollars  a  pound  for  it  when  quite  genuine  ; 
while  the  latter  dispose  of  it  to  the  hajjis,  chiefly  the  Per- 
sians, in  an  adulterated  state,  at  five  or  six  times  the  prim,e 
cost.  The  richer  classes  put  a  drop  into  the  first  cup  of 
coffee  which  they  drink  in  the  morning,  from  the  notion  that 
it  acts  as  a  tonic.  That  which  is  sold  at  Mecca  and  Jidda, 
for  the  (Jairo  market,  always  undergoes  several  adultera- 
tions. The  seeds  are  employed  to  procure  abortion,  but  the 
balm  itself  is  used  medicinally,  and  highly  valued  in  the 
harems  on  account  of  its  cosmetic  qualities.  Forskal,  who 
gives  a  botanical  description  of  this  tree  as  a  new  species  of 
Amyrts,  found  one  of  them  in  the  open  fields.  Its  appear- 
ance was  not  beautiful  ;  but  what  seems  very  remarkable  is, 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Yemen,  according  to  his  account,  were 
ignorant  of  its  qualities.     They  only  burn  ihe  wood  as  a 


384  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

perfume  in  the  same  manner  as  they  do  the  kafal,  another 
sort  of  Amyris,  which  is  exported  to  Egypt,  and  there  used 
as  fuel,  to  communicate  an  agreeable  odour  to  the  vessek  and 
the  liquors  which  are  boiled  in  them. 

Gharkad  (the  Peganum  retusum  of  Forskal),  a  thorny 
shrub,  bearing  a  small  red  berry  about  the  size  of  a  pome- 
granaie-seed,  is  common  in  the  peninsula  of  Smai,  especially 
in  Wady  Gharendel.  It  comes  to  maturity  in  the  height  of 
summer,  and  surprises  the  traveller  by  the  delicious  refresh- 
ment which  it  affords  in  the  parched  and  solitary  wilderness. 
The  fruit  is  juicy  and  pleasant,  much  resembling  a  ripe 
gooseberry  in  taste,  but  not  so  sweet ;  and  when  the  crop 
is  abundant,  the  Arabs  make  a  conserve  of  the  berries.  This 
is  the  shrub  which  Burckhardt  supposes  might  have  been 
used  by  Moses  to  sweeten  the  bitter  waters  of  Marah  (Exod. 
XV.  25)  ;  but  as  he  made  no  inquiries  on  the  spot,  his  sup- 
position rests  on  mere  conjecture. 

Another  shrub,  of  high  celebrity  in  the  East  as  an  article 
for  the  toilette,  is  the  henna-tree  {Lawsoni a  inermis,  Lirm.), 
whose  leaves  and  odoriferous  flowers,  when  pulverized  and 
wrought  into  a  paste,  are  universally  used  by  the  iadies  for 
staining  the  face,  hands,  feet,  and  nails,  of  a  reddish  or  yel- 
lowish colour  ;  lighter  or  deeper  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  this  fashionable  pomatum  is  applied.     The  tmcture 
requires  to   be   frequently  renewed.     This   shrub,  which  in 
size   and    character  resembles    privet,  is  very  abundant   in 
Wady  Fatima,  and  sold  to  the  hajjis  at  Mecca  in  small  red 
leathern  bags.     A  species  of  Glycyrrhiza,  or  liquorice-shrub, 
is  common  in  Yemen,  as  is  also  a  sort  of  caper-tree  (Cap- 
pans  spinosa,  Linn.),  which   is  reckoned  the  only  antidote 
against  the   effects  of  a   shrub  (called  Adcnia  by  Forskal), 
whose  buds,  when  dried  and  given  in  drink  as  a  powder,  are 
strongly  poisonous.     The  rose-laurel  (Nerium),  the  cotton- 
plant,  the  acacia,    and  various   others,  spring  in  the   sandy 
plains,  and  form  scattered  tufts  of  verdure  in  tlie  cliffs  of  the 
barren  rocks.     The  acacia  being  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
common  shrubs  in  the  desert,  Shaw  conjectures  that  it  must 
have  been  the  shithm-wood  of  which  the  planks  and  several 
utensils  of  the  tabernacle  were  made.     Exod.  xxv.     As  it 
abounds  with   flowers  of  a  globular  figure,  and  of  delicious 
fragrance,  it  is  perhaps  the  same  as  the  shitfah-trce,  which 
(Isaiah  ill.  19)  is  joined  with  the  myrtle  and  other  sweet- 


LVCENSE-TREE COFFEE.  385 

smelling  plants.  Of  the  cotton-tree  Niebuhr  mentions  two 
species,  one  of  which  grows  to  some  size,  and  the  other  bears 
red  flowers.  The  profits  from  the  culture  of  this  article  are 
inconsiderable,  as  most  of  the  Arabs  wear  the  cotton-cloths 
of  India  and  Egypt. 

The  incense-tree,  so  famous  in  all  antiquity,  is  not  once 
mentioned  by  Forskal  :  the  travellers  could  learn  nothing  of 
it,  except  that  it  was  to  be  found  in  a  part  of  Hadramaut. 
where  it  is  called  olihan.  The  soil  of  the  hills  where  it  grows 
is  said  to  be  of  a  clayey  texture,  impregnated  with  nitre. 
Ibn  Batuta,  who  visited  Dafar  and  Hasec  (A.  D,  1328),  says, 
"  We  have  here  the  incense-tree,  which  is  about  the  height 
of  a  man,  with  branches  like  those  of  the  artichoke  ;  it  has 
a  thin  leaf,  which,  when  scarified,  produces  a  fluid  like  milk ; 
this  turns  into  gum,  and  is  then  called  labaii,  or  frankin- 
cense." Some  French  naturalists  suppose  it  to  be  BuswelHa 
dentata  of  Roxburgh,  which  is  described  as  growing  to  a 
considerable  height  on  the  mountains  of  Coroinandel  ;*  but 
this  account  does  not  agree  with  what  the  ancients  say  of 
the  incense-tree.  According  to  Lord  Valentia,  the  frankin- 
cense is  chiefly  produced  near  Cape  Guardafui,  and  is  ex- 
ported from  a  harbour  of  the  Somaulies  called  Bunder  Cas- 
sim.  It  forms  an  article  of  trade  with  the  Red  Sea,  and  is 
principally  consumed  in  Catholic  countries.  As  the  natives 
hold  their  own  produce  in  no  estimation,  and  make  use  of  that 
only  which  comes  from  India,  we  deem  it  unnecessary  to  add 
any  farther  remarks  to  what  has  been  already  said  of  this 
substance,  as  well  as  of  myrrh,  cassia,  spikenard,  with  other 
resinous  and  aromatic  plants,  in  treating  of  the  commerce  of 
the  ancient  Arabs.  The  name  thus,  by  which  it  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  superseded  in  the  decline 
of  the  Latin  language  by  that  of  incense  {inceiisvm),  fiom 
the  universal  practice  of  burning  it  in  the  temples  of  their 
gods.t 

Coflfee  {Cnffea  Arahica)  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia,  and  has 
been  noticed  among  the  vegetable  productions  of  that  coun- 
try. That  it  was  introduced  into  Yemen  by  the  Abyssinian 
conquerors  is  highly  probable  ;  and  when  the  Koran  prohib- 

*  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  d'Hist.  Nat.  art.  Encens.    Roxburgh, 
Plants  of  Coromandel. 
t  Vol.  1  chap.  V.  p.  162.    Eutrop.  Rer.  Rom.  hh.  xi. 
Vol.  II.— K  k 


386  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

ited  the  use  of  wine,  this  supplementary  drink  would  take  its 
place,  and  propagate  itself,  by  degrees,  over  the  reg-ions  which 
embraced  the  creed  of  Islam.  This  supposition  is  not 
founded  on  mere  conjecture.  We  learn  from  Poncet,  who 
travelled  in  Ethiopia  in  1698,  that  the  opinion  then  univer- 
sally prevalent  in  the  East  was,  that  coffee  had  been  origin- 
ally' transported  from  that  kingdom  into  Arabia  Felix.  The 
etymology  of  the  name  itself  is  a  strong  presumption  that  it 
was  at  first  intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  juice  of  the  grape. 
Cahuuch  (or  cahvch,  as  the  Turks  pronounce  it  with  a  t;, 
whence  our  word  coffee  is  derived)  was  used  by  the  old  Arabs, 
in  its  primary  sense,  to  denote  wine  or  other  intoxicating 
liquors.  It  was  afterward  applied  to  the  decoction  of  the 
Abyssinian  berry,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  buun, 
while  they  called  the  shrub  on  which  it  grew  the  buun-tree. 
The  early  Mohammedan  authors  furnish  us  merely  with  a  few 
details  about  the  supposed  qualities  of  this  liquid,  and  the 
disputes  that  occurred  concerning  its  lawfulness  as  an  article 
of  diet.  Avicenna,  Ibn  Jazlah  of  Bagdad,  and  some  other 
professional  writers  of  that  time,  speak  obscurely  of  buun ; 
hence  we  may  presume  that  coffee,  like  sugar  and  chocolate, 
was  then  prescribed  as  a  medicine.  Its  use,  however,  was 
long  peculiar  to  the  East  ;  and  the  city  of  Aden  is  the  first 
on  record  that  set  the  example  of  drinking  it  as  a  common 
refreshment,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  A 
drowsy  mufti,  called  Jemaleddin,  had  discovered  that  it  dis- 
posed him  to  keep  awake,  as  well  as  to  a  more  lively  exer- 
cise of  his  spiritual  duties.  On  his  authority  coffee  became 
the  most  fashionable  beverage  in  the  place.  The  leaves  of 
the  cat  (tea)  were  abandoned  ;  and  all  classes, — lawyers,  stu- 
dents, loungers,  and  artisans, — adopted  the  infusion  of  the 
roasted  bean.  Another  discovery  of  the  same  individual 
rendered  it  still  more  popular.  Having  contracted  some  in- 
firmity during  a  voyage  to  Persia,  on  returning  to  Yemen  he 
applied  to  his  favourite  stimulant,  and  in  a  short  time  found 
his  health  perfectly  restored.  This  pious  doctor,  to  whom 
Europe  perhaps  owes  one  of  the  most  useful  luxuries  of  the 
East,  died  A.  D.  1470  ;  and  such  was  the  reputation  which  his 
experience  had  given  to  the  virtues  of  coffee,  that  in  a  short 
time  it  was  introduced  by  Fakeddin  at  Mecca  and  Medina, 
and  became  so  agreeable  to  the  general  taste,  that  public 
saloous  were  opened,  whore  crowds  assembled  to  enjoy  the 


COFFEE.  387 

amusements  of  chess,  singing,  dancing,  gambling,  and  other 
recreations  not  very  consistent  with  the  rigour  of  the  Koran. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  brought 
by  certain  dervises  of  Yemen  to  Cairo,  where  its  quahties 
recommended  it  to  general  use.  But  the  innovation  of  drink- 
ing it  in  the  mosques  gave  rise  to  a  bitter  controversy,  which 
seemed  to  threaten  the  East  with  a  new  revolution.  In  the 
year  1511,  it  was  pubhcly  condemned  at  Mecca  by  an  assem- 
bly of  muftis,  lawyers,  and  physicians,  who  declared  it  to  be 
contrary  to  the  law  of  the  Prophet,  and  alike  injurious  to  soul 
and  body.  The  pulpits  of  Cairo  resounded  with  the  anathe- 
mas of  the  more  orthodox  divines  ;  all  the  magazines  of  this 
"  seditious  berry"  were  laid  in  ashes  ;  the  saloons  were  shut, 
and  their  keepers  pelted  with  the  fragments  of  their  broken 
pots  and  cups.  This  occurred  in  1523  ;  but  by  an  order  of 
Selim  1.  the  decrees  of  the  muftis  were  reversed  ;  the 
tumults  both  in  Egypt  and  Arabia  were  quashed  ;  the  drink- 
ing of  coffee  was  pronounced  not  to  be  heretical  ;  and  two 
Persian  doctors,  who  had  declared  it  to  be  pernicious  to  the 
health,  were  hanged  by  order  of  the  sultan.  From  Cairo 
this  contested  liquor  passed  to  Damascus  and  Aleppo,  and 
thence  to  Constantinople  (in  1554),  where  it  encountered  and 
triumphed  over  the  persecution  of  the  dervises,  who  de- 
claimed vehemently  against  the  impiety  of  human  beings 
eating  charcoal,  as  they  called  the  bean  when  roasted,  which 
their  Prophet  had  declared  was  not  intended  by  God  for  food. 

From  the  Levant  it  found  its  way  by  degrees  to  Europe, 
and  was  probably  imported  by  the  Dutch  and  Venetian  mer- 
chants. Pietro  de  la  Valle,  who  travelled  in  1615,  seems 
the  first  that  made  it  known  in  Italy.  Mons.  Thevenot,  on 
his  return  from  the  East  in  1657,  brought  it  Avith  him  to 
France  as  a  curiosity,  though  it  appears  to  have  been  used 
privately  at  Marseilles  ten  years  earlier  ;  and  in  1679  the 
medical  faculty  of  that  city  made  its  deleterious  effects  the 
theme  of  a  public  disputation.  The  first  coffee-house  opened 
in  Paris  was  in  1672,  by  an  Armenian  named  Pascal  (or 
Pasqua),  who  sold  this  beverage  at  2s.  6d.  a-cup  ;  but  the 
want  of  encouragement  obliged  him  to  remove  to  London. 
The  government  of  Charles  II.  attempted  in  vain  to  suppress 
these  places  of  entertainment  as  nurseries  of  sedition  ;  and  in 
a  few  years  they  became  general  throughout  the  country. 
The  first  European  author  that  wrote  expressly  on  coffee  was 


388  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF   ARABIA. 

t 

Prospero  Alpino,  a  celebrated  botanist  and  physician  of  Pa- 
dua, who  resided  at  Cairo  in  1580.  It  is  not  mentioned  by 
Belon,  who  has  described  the  most  remarkable  plants  of 
Egypt  and  Arabia  (A.  D.  1546-49).  Lord  Bacon,  who  died 
in  1626,  and  Dr.  John  Ray,  both  speak  of  it ;  but  in  a  man- 
ner which  shows  that  they  had  a  very  superficial  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  Its  quahties,  however,  were  soon  afterward 
celebrated  both  by  naturalists  and  poets.  Delia  Valle  in- 
sisted that  it  was  the  nepenthe  of  Homer,  while  Mons.  Pas- 
chius  alleged  that  it  was  among  the  articles  presented  to 
David  by  Abigail.  In  France  it  became  a  theme  for  the 
dramatic  muse  ;  and  in  1694,  Le  Cafe  was  the  most  fashion- 
able comedy  in  Paris.  A  national  song  under  the  same  name 
was  written  by  Fuzelier,  and  set  to  music  by  Bernier.  The 
following  stanza  will  suffice  as  a  specimen  : 

"  Favorable  liqueur,  dont  mon  ame  est  ravie. 
Par  tes  enchantemens  augmente  nos  beaux  jours  ; 
Nousdomptons  le  sommeil  par  ton  heureux  secours  : 
Tu  nous  rend  les  momens  qu'il  derobe  a  la  vie. 
Favorable  liqueur,  dont  mon  ame  est  ravie, 
Par  tes  enchantemens  augmente  nos  beaux  jours." 

The  method  of  roasting  and  sweetening  it,  and  the  praises 
of  the  cups  and  saucers  into  which  it  was  poured,  were  sung 
in  a  heroic  poem  by  a  Jesuit  of  the  name  of  Father  Vaniere, 
who  thus  speaks  in  the  eighth  book  of  his  PrcBdium  RuS' 
ticum : — 

"  Tritaque  mox  validis  intra  mortaria  pilis, 
Diluitur  lympha  ;  facilique  parabiiis  arte 
Vulcano  coquitur,  donee  vas  pulvis  ad  imum. 
Venerit,  et  posito  mansueverit  oUula  motu. 
Fictihbus  rufis  pateris  defunde  liquores, 
Adde  peregrina  dulces  ab  arundine  succos. 
Ora  sapore  caUx  ne  tristia  laedat  amaro." 

This  shrub  has  long  maintained  a  vast  importance  as  an  arti- 
cle of  commerce  ;  and  though  it  has  been  transplanted  to 
various  countries  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  its  chief  celtb- 
rity  is  derived  from  Arabia,  where  its  cultivation  seems  to  be 
best  understood.  It  appears  originally  to  have  grown  wild  in 
Abyssinia,  where  the  natives  were  in  the  habit  of  eating  the 
bean  as  food.     They  roasted  and  pounded  it,  and  then  mixed 


COFFEE.  389 

the  powder  with  grease  or  butter  to  give  it  consistency.  A 
small  quantity  of  this  preparation  was  sufficient  to  support 
them  during  a  march  of  several  days.  In  Upper  Egypt  this 
practice  is  still  common.  Reynier  often  saw  the  soldiers 
prefer  this  mixture  to  their  rations  when  they  had  long  fa- 
tigues to  support ;  facts  which  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  nutri- 
tive qualities  of  coffee. 

In  Arabia  the  fmit  of  the  tree,  when  allowed  to  grow  wild, 
is  so  bad  as  to  be  unfit  for  use.  It  is  only  in  certain  parts  of 
that  country  that  the  soil  is  adapted  for  its  production. 
Burckhardt  was  informed  that  it  does  not  grow  farther  north 
than  Mishnye,  in  the  district  of  Zohran,  and  that  it  improves  in 
quality  towards  the  south.  The  plantations  are  found  to  thrive 
best  on  the  western  side  of  the  great  mountains  of  Yemen. 
They  abound  in  the  provinces  of  Heschid-u-Bekil,  Kataba,  and 
Jafa  ;  but  the  climate  about  Udden,  Kahhme,  Kusma,  Jebi, 
Jobla,  and  Taas,  is  reckoned  the  most  favourable,  as  the 
shrub  on  these  hills  yields  the  berry  in  greater  quantity  and 
of  better  flavour.  The  coffee  produced  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Sanaa  is  esteemed  the  best.  Europeans  are  mistaken  in 
supposing  the  tree  should  be  planted  in  a  dry  soil,  and  under 
a  torrid  sun.  Though  it  is  cultivated  only  in  the  hilly 
regions,  it  requires  both  moisture  and  coolness  ;  and  it  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  Arabs  plant  other  trees  in  their  coffee- 
grounds  in  order  to  afford  it  shade.  In  times  of  intense  heat 
the  plantations  are  regularly  irrigated  ;  which  is  the  more 
easily  done,  as  they  usually  stand  upon  terraces  in  the  form 
of  an  amphitheatre,  where  they  are  so  densely  crowded  that 
the  rays  of  the  sun  can  hardly  penetrate  among  the  branches. 
Most  of  them  are  only  moistened  by  the  rain  ;  but  others 
have  the  benefit  of  large  reservoirs  (birkets)  upon  the  heights, 
from  which  water  is  conveyed  and  sprinkled  over  the  steep 
declivities.  The  coffee-shrub  is  an  evergreen ;  its  average 
height  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  ;  the  branches  are  elas- 
tic, the  bark  rough  and  of  a  whitish  colour  ;  the  flowers  re- 
semble those  of  the  jasmine,  and  though  bitter  to  the  taste, 
they  diffuse  a  strong  balmy  fragrance.  At  Bulgosa,  Niebuhr 
found  the  trees  in  full  bloom  in  the  beginning  of  March,  and 
the  whole  atmosphere  perfumed  with  their  delicious  odour. 
When  the  blossom  dies  the  fruit  appears  in  its  place,  green 
at  first,  but  red  and  resembling  a  cherry  when  ripe  ;  in  the 
centre  of  wliich  lies  the  bean,  enclosed  in  a  thin  membrane, 

Kk2 


390  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    ARABIA. 

and  easily  separated  into  two  halves.  There  are  two  or  three 
crops  in  the  year  ;  and  it  is  quite  common  to  see  fruit  and 
flowers  on  the  same  tree  ;  but  the  first  produce  is  always  the 
best.  May  is  the  proper  harvest  month  ;  the  berries  are 
shaken  from  the  branches  on  cloths  spread  underneath  ;  they 
are  then  dried  in  the  sun  ;  after  which  a  heavy  roller  of 
wood  or  stone  is  passed  over  them,  to  separate  the  bean  from 
the  husk.*  All  the  Arabs  are  extravagantly  fond  of  coffee  ; 
yet  less  of  it  is  drunk  in  Yemen  than  in  the  other  provinces. 
The  flavour  is  greatly  improved  by  their  mode  of  preparing 
It  :  instead  of  grinding  the  beans  in  a  mill,  they  pound  them 
to  an  impalpable  powder  in  a  close  mortar,  which  seems  bet- 
ter to  express  and  preserve  from  evaporating  those  oily  par- 
ticles that  give  the  decoction  its  peculiar  relish.  They  also 
use  a  preparation  from  the  husks,  called  cafe  a  la  sultane, 
which  is  made  by  pounding  and  roasting  them,  and  is  es- 
teemed an  excellent  beverage.  The  greatest  care  is  taken 
of  the  powdered  coffee,  which  is  kept  closely  pressed  down 
in  a  wooden  box,  and  the  quantity  required  for  use  is  scraped 
from  the  surface  with  a  wooden  spoon.  Two  small  pots  are 
often  used  ;  in  the  one  the  water  is  boiled  (generally  mixed 
with  the  remains  of  the  preceding  meal) ;  into  the  other  is 
put  the  fresh  coffee,  and  it  is  sometimes  heated  by  standing 
near  the  fire  before  the  boiling  water  is  added.  This  latter 
mixture  is  then  boiled  two  or  three  times  ;  care  being  taken 
to  pour  a  few  drops  of  cold  water  upon  it  the  last  time,  or  to 
place  over  it  a  linen  cloth  dipped  in  cold  water.  After  this 
process  it  is  allowed  to  subside,  and  then  emptied  into  the 

*  In  the  West  Indies  this  operation  is  performed  by  a  mill 
composed  of  two  wooden  rollers  furnished  with  iron  plates 
eighteen  inches  long  and  ten  or  twelve  in  diameter.  These 
moveable  rollers  are  made  to  approach  a  third,  which  is  fixed, 
called  chops  ;  between  these  the  fruit  falls  from  a  hopper,  where 
it  is  stripped  of  its  first  skin,  and  divided  into  two  parts.  Out  of 
this  machine  it  falls  into  a  brass  sieve,  which  separates  it  from 
the  husks.  It  is  then  thrown  into  a  vessel  full  of  water,  where 
it  soaks  for  one  night,  and  is  afterward  thoroughly  washed  and 
dried.  Another  machine,  called  the  peeling-mill,  which  is  a 
wooden  grimier,  turned  vertically  upon  its  axis  by  a  mule  or 
horse,  is  employed  to  strip  the  thin  pellicle  from  the  bean  ;  and 
after  this  process  it  is  winnowed  by  slaves,  who  set  the  air  in 
motion  by  turning  rapidly  four  tin-plates  fixed  upon  an  axle. 


WILD    ANIMALS.  391 

pot  containing  the  boiling  water.  All  classes  use  it  without 
milk  or  sugar  ;  people  of  rank  drink  it  out  of  porcelain  cups  ; 
the  lower  sort  are  content  with  coarser  ware.  In  Hejaz  it  is 
ser\-ed  up  to  travellers  in  small  earthern  pots  like  bottles,  con- 
taining from  ten  to  fifteen  cups.  This  vessel  has  a  long  nar- 
row neck,  with  a  bunch  of  dry  herbs  stuck  into  its  mouth, 
through  which  the  liquor  is  poured.  At  Mocha,  Mrs.  Lush- 
ington  observed  that  every  lady,  when  she  pays  a  visit,  car- 
ries on  her  arm  a  little  bag  of  coffee,  which  is  boiled  at  the 
house  where  she  spends  the  evening  ;  and  in  this  way  she 
can  enjoy  society  without  putting  her  friends  to  expense.  The 
Bedouin  cooks  this  meal  in  the  same  rude  manner  that  he 
does  his  cakes  and  his  mutton.  He  roasts  a  few  beans  on  an 
iron  shovel,  hammers  them  to  atoms  in  a  wooden  mortar  with 
his  bludcreon,  and  boils  his  pot  between  two  stones,  over  a 
ifire  lighted  with  tuider,  and  composed  of  dry  shrubs  or  camel's 
dung. 


SECTION    IV. ZOOLOGY. 

Wild  Animals. — The  zoology  of   Arabia  differs  but  little 
from  that  of  other  Eastern   countries.     Most  of  the  animals 
found  there  being  described  in  works  which  are   familiar  to 
the  reader,  it  will  not  be  necessary  here  to  enter  into  any 
lengthened  details  on  their  natural  history.     Lions,  leopards, 
panthers,  lynxes,  wolves,  foxes,  boars,  antelopes,  and  various 
domestic   animals  in  a  wild  state,  are  to   be  met  with  in 
almost  every  district  in   the  peninsula.     The  small  panther 
(called  falh)  is  more  common  than  the  large  one  (the  ncmer 
of  the  Arabs) ;  but  it  is  not  regarded  with  the  same  terror,  as 
it  only  carries  away  cats  and  dogs,  never  venturing  to  attack 
man.     It  is  the  Felis  jubafa  or  hunting-tiger  of  naturalists. 
The  jackall  (el  vam)  abounds  in  the  mountains  ;  but  its  habits 
and  appearance   are  too  well  known  to  require  particular 
notice.     The  hyena  inhabits  the  solitary  caverns  of  the  Pe- 
traean  range,  and  is  also  common  round  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.     It  assails  men  and  beasts  with  the  same  ferocity : 
stealing  out  at  night,  it  seizes  on  the  natives  who  sleep  in 
the  open  air,  and  frequently  carries  off  children  from  beside 
their  parents.     In  the  forests  of  Yemen,   and  on   the  hills 
around  Aden,  are  swarms  of  monkeys  without  tails,  and  whose 
hind-quarters  are  of  a  bright  red.     They  are  extremely  docile, 
and  iearn  readily  any  tricks  that  are  attempted  to  be  taught 


392  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

them.  On  this  account  vast  numbers  of  them  are  exported 
to  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Syria,  where  itinerant  jugglers  make  a 
livehhood  by  exhibiting  them  to  the  people.  The  sandy 
plains,  and  the  valleys  of  the  mountains,  are  stocked  with 
gazelles.  So  common  is  this  beautiful  creature,  that  as  a 
beast  of  chase,  it  furnishes  amusement  and  food  for  the  Arabs 
of  the  desert,  and  supplies  the  poets  with  many  of  their  finest 
similitudes.  On  the  Eastern  frontier  there  are  several  places 
allotted  for  the  hunting  of  this  animal,  enclosed  with  a  high 
wall.  Gaps  are  left,  with  a  broad  ditch  on  the  outside,  where 
they  are  caught  in  hundreds  while  attempting  to  escape. 
The  rock-goats  {Capra  Ibex,  the  steinbok  or  bouquetin  of  the 
Swiss)  abound  in  the  Alpine  districts,  especially  among  the 
cliffs  of  Sinai,  where  they  are  hunted  by  the  Bedouins.  Their 
flesh  is  excellent,  and  has  nearly  the  same  flavour  as  that  of 
deer.  In  the  plains  dogs  are  employed  to  catch  them  ;  but 
among  the  rocks  it  is  difficult  to  come  near  them,  as  they 
occasionally  take  a  leap  of  twenty  feet,  and  are  so  keen- 
scented,  that  on  the  slightest  change  of  wind  they  smell  the 
pursuer  at  a  great  distance,  and  lake  to  flight.  They  pas- 
ture in  herds  of  forty  or  fifty  together,  having  a  leader  who 
keeps  watch  ;  and  on  any  suspicious  sound,  odour,  or  object, 
he  makes  a  noise,  which  is  a  signal  to  the  flock  to  make  their 
escape.  The  chase  of  the  heden,  as  the  wild-goat  is  called, 
resembles  that  of  the  chamois  of  the  Alps,  and  requires  as 
much  enterprise  and  patience.  Burckhardt  was  assured,  that 
when  hotly  pursued  they  would  throw  themselves  from  a 
height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  upon  their  heads  without  receiving 
any  mjury.  The  Arabs  make  long  circuits  to  surprise  them, 
and  endeavour  to  come  upon  them  late,  or  early  in  the  morn- 
ing when  they  feed.  Their  skins  are  made  into  water-bags, 
and  their  long,  large,  knotty  horns  are  sold  to  the  merchants, 
who  carry  them  to  Jerusalem,  where  they  are  made  into 
handles  for  knives  and  daggers. 

Hares  are  plentful,  and  hunted  by  the  Arabs,  who  knock 
them  down  with  small  sticks  or  clubs,  which  they  throw  to  a 
great  distance,  and  with  admirable  dexterity.  As  the  line 
of  a  caravan  sometimes  extends  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  they 
are  often  started  in  considerable  numbers,  and  scarcely  one 
of  them  ever  escapes  the  shower  of  missiles  to  which  they 
are  exposed.  The  more  orthodox,  however,  object  to  dress 
or  eat  them  until  they  have  undergone  the  operation  of  hulaul. 


WILD    ANIMALS.  393 

or  being  made  lawful ;  a  ceremony  which  is  performed  by 
cutting  the  throat  with  the  neck  turned  towards  the  Holy 
City.  Forskal  mentions  several  wild  animals  of  which  he 
knew  nothing  except  what  he  learned  from  the  indistinct  ac- 
counts of  the  natives.  The  jcear  was  said  to  resemble  the 
the  ass  in  shape  and  size,  and  the  flesh  is  reckoned  excellent 
food.  The  bakar  wash,  from  the  vague  descriptions  given  by 
the  Arabs,  seemed  to  be  the  wild  ox.  They  mentioned  an- 
other quadruped  of  a  similar  form,  which  was  without  horns, 
and  fed  only  by  night.  One  of  the  most  singular  of  these 
anonymous  animals  was  described  as  resembling  a  cat,  which 
fed  on  grass,  and  was  eaten  as  a  great  delicacy.  The  Be- 
douins of  Sinai  frequently  mentioned  to  Burckhardt  a  beast 
of  prey  called  wober,  which  inhabited  only  the  retired  parts 
of  the  desert ;  they  represented  it  as  being  about  the  size  of 
a  large  dog,  with  a  head  hke  a  hog.  He  was  told  of  another 
voracious  creature  called  shyb,  stated  to  be  a  breed  between 
the  leopard  and  the  wolf,  but  their  accounts  as  to  this  origin 
are  not  much  to  be  trusted,  their  common  practice  being  to 
assign  parents  of  different  known  species  to  any  animal  which 
they  seldom  meet  with.  The  jerboa  or  Pharaoh's  rat  is 
seldom  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  sandy  tracts 
among  the  hills,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  Its 
appearance  and  manners  have  already  been  noticed  in  the 
Zoology  of  Abyssinia  and  Egypt.  Its  size  is  that  of  a  large 
rat ;  the  upper  part  is  of  a  light-fawn  colour,  striped  with 
black  ;  and  this  dusky  hue  contrasts  agreeably  with  the  fine 
shining  white  of  the  belly.  The  body  is  short, — broader 
behind  than  before,  and  well  provided  with  long,  soft,  silky 
hair.  According  to  Hasselquist,  the  tail  is  three  times  longer 
than  the  whole  body  ;  Sonnini  says  he  never  found  it  much 
more  than  half  its  length.  Its  thickness  hardly  exceeds  the 
circumference  of  a  large  goose-quill ;  but  it  is  of  a  quadran- 
gular, and  not  of  a  round  shape.  The  fore-legs,  which  have 
five  toes,  are  white  and  short,  scarcely  extending  beyond 
the  hair ;  but  they  are  less  serviceable  in  walking  than  in 
conveying  food  to  the  animal's  mouth,  or  digging  his  subter- 
ranean habitation ;  hence  the  name  dipus  or  two-footed 
mouse,  erroneously  applied  to  the  jerboa.  The  hind-legs  are 
covered  with  white  and  fawn-coloured  hair  ;  but  its  long  feet 
are  almost  entirely  naked.  Its  motion,  especially  when  pur- 
sued, is  that  of  leapmg  and  bounding  like  the  kangaroo  which 


394  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF    ARABIA. 

it  performs  with  great  rapidity,  assisted  by  its  long  muscular 
tail.  It  is  this  peculiarity  which  induced  naturalists  to  give 
this  species  the  name  of  Mus  jorulus,  or  flying  mouse.  7'ho 
flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs,  and  its  taste  is  said  to  be  very 
little  different  from  that  of  a  young  rabbit. 

Domestic  Animals. — The  Arabs  rear  in  abundance  all  the 
domestic  animals  common  to  hot  countries.  They  breed 
horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  dromedaries,  cows,  buffaloes, 
hogs,  sheep,  and  goats.*  Their  cows  and  oxen  are  distin- 
guished by  a  hump  or  bunch  of  fat  on  the  shoulder,  imme- 
diately above  the  fore-legs.  Those  in  Hejaz  are  described  by 
Burclihardt  as  small,  but  of  a  stout  bony  make  ;  they  have 
for  the  most  part  only  short  stumps  of  horns,  and  bore  a 
strong  resemblance  to  those  he  had  seen  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  in  Nubia.  Of  the  instinct  ascribed  to  these  animals,  of 
forming  into  circular  bodies  to  defend  themselves  against 
beasts  of  prey,  Niebuhr  could  obtain  no  information,  nor  did 
he  think  the  story  probable.  Buffaloes  are  found  in  all 
marshy  parts  of  the  country  and  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers, 
where  they  are  more  numerous  than  the  common  horned 
cattle.  The  male  is  as  fit  for  the  yoke  as  the  ox  ;  his  flesh 
is  inferior,  being  hard  and  unsavoury  ;  but  when  voung,  it 
has  much  the  taste  and  appearance  of  beef  The  female 
yields  more  milk  than  the  ordinary  cow.  The  Arabs  have  a 
mode  of  forcing  her  to  yield  more  than  she  would  do  volun- 
tarily :  while  one  person  milks,  another  tickles  her  ;  a  custom 
which  the  ancient  Scythians  practised  with  their  mares. 

Asses. — There  are  two  sorts  of  asses  in  Arabia, — one 
small  and  sluggish,  which  is  there  as  little  esteemed  as  in 
Europe  ;  the  other  a  large  and  noble-spirited  breed,  which 
sells  at  a  high  price.  Niebuhr  thought  them  preferable  to  a 
horse  for  a  journey,  and  reckoned  their  progress  in  half  an 
hour  equal  to  3500  paces  of  a  man.  In  Yemen,  the  soldiers 
use  them  on  patrol,  as  well  as  in  every  militar}'^  service  in 
which  parade  is  not  an  object ;  the  pilgrims  employ  them  in 
considerable  numbers  ;  and  Ali  Bey  mentions,  that  they 
sometimes  travel  the  distance  from  Jidda  to  Mecca  (fifty-five 
miles)  in  twelve  hours.     In  various  parts  of  the  country  these 

*•  Strabo  must  have  been  misinformed  when  he  excepted 
mules,  horses,  and  hogs  ;  as  also  geese  and  hens.  "In  Arabia 
pecorum,  omnis  generis  copia,  exceptis  muhs,  equis,  et  porcis; 
avium  etiam  omnium  praeter  anseres  et  gallinas." — Lib.  xvi. 


THE    WILD-ASS.  395 

animals  abound  in  a  wild  state.  To  the  northward  of  Nejed, 
adjoining  the  district  of  Jof,  they  are  found  in  great  numbers. 
The  Sherarat  Arabs  hunt  them  and  eat  their  flesh  (though 
forbidden),  but  not  before  strangers.*  They  sell  their  skins 
and  hoofs  to  the  pedlars  at  Damascus  and  the  people  of  the 
Hauran.  The  hoofs  are  manufactured  into  rings,  which  are 
worn  by  the  peasants  on  their  thumbs  or  under  the  armpits  as 
amulets  agamst  rheumatism. 

According  to  Buifon,  the  domesticated  breed  of  asses  used 
in  Europe  came  originally  from  Arabia.  The  uniform  aspect 
of  this  animal,  when  compared  with  the  great  variety  of 
colour  exhibited  by  the  domestic  races  of  the  horse,  has  in- 
duced some  to  suppose  that  the  former  has  not  been  so  long 
nor  so  generally  under  the  dominion  of  man.  In  the  time  of 
Aristotle  the  ass  was  not  found  in  Thrace,  nor  even  in  Gaul ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  v.'e  know  from  the  Sacred  Writings, 
that  it  was  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  in  the  remotest  acres  of 
Jewish  history,  and  was  therefore,  in  all  probabdity,  reduced 
to  servitude  by  the  Eastern  nations  fully  more  early  than  any 
other  animal  not  immediately  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a 
pastoral  people. t  Its  comparatively  recent  reduction,  then, 
cannot,  as  Buffon  has  alleged,  be  assigned  as  the  cause  of 
its  greater  uniformity  of  colour.  This  must  be  sought  for  in 
the  different  natures  of  the  two  animals  when  acted  upon  by 
the  influence  of  climate,  leading  the  one  to  vary  only  in  form 
and  stature,  and  the  other  in  colour  as  well  as  form.  The 
domestic  ass  of  our  northern  climes  being  never  improved  by 
crosses  from  a  purer  race,  the  inferiority  of  the  animal  is 
scarcely  to  be  wondered  at.  But  under  the  warm  and  serene 
chmates  of  Asia,  where  the  breed  is  not  only  carefully  tended, 
but  frequently  improved  by  intercourse  with  the  fleet  and  fiery 
onager,  it  is  an  animal  of  great  strength  and  considerable 
beauty. 

The  onager  or  wild-ass,  called  koulan  by  many  of  the  tribes 
of  Asia,   is  distinguished  from  the   domestic  kind  by  the 

*  Ibn  Batuta  says,  that  the  flesh  of  the  domestic  ass  was  con- 
sidered lawful  in  Oman,  and  publicly  sold  in  the  streets. — 
Travels,  p.  62. 

+  The  first  mention  of  mules  is  in  the  time  of  David,  previous 
to  which  time  asses  seem  to  have  been  used  for  riding.  The 
word  rendered  mules  in  Genesis  xxxvi.  S4,  signifies  springs  of 
water. 


396  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

greater  length  and  finer  form  of  its  limbs,  its  straight  chest, 
and  somewhat  compressed  body.  Its  head  is  better  jmt  on, 
and  more  erectly  carried,  than  in  the  common  ass  ;  and  the 
ears,  which  are  shorter  by  one-third,  are  slender  and  sharp 
pointed.  The  true  source  of  our  domestic  race,  though  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  appears  to  have  been  lost  sight  of 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  was  indeed  but  obscurely  known 
for  some  centuries  after  the  revival  of  learning.  We  owe 
the  best  modern  elucidation  of  its  history,  as  we  do  that  of 
several  other  species,  to  the  researches  of  Pallas.  The 
Romans  were  familiar  with  the  aspect  of  this  animal.  Julius 
Capitolinus,  in  the  life  of  Gordian  (in  Hist.  August.)  observes, 
that  that  emperor  brought  up  thirty  onagers  and  as  many  wild 
horses  ;  and  in  the  secular  games  of  Philip,  twenty  of  the 
former  and  forty  of  the  latter  were  exhibited. 

The  Turkish  name  of  the  wild  ass,  Dugh  Aischaki  or  moun- 
tain-ass, points  out  its  natural  locality  : — "  Whose  house  I 
have  made  the  wilderness,  and  the  barren  land  his  dwellings. 
— The  range  of  the  mountains  is  his  pasture,  and  he  search- 
eth  after  every  green  thing."*  Even  the  choice  which  the 
domestic  ass  makes  of  the  narrow  and  irregular  paths  by  the 
wayside  has  been  regarded  as  a  remnant  of  natural  instinct,  f 
A  good  ass  of  Arabian  origin  sells,  according  to  Chardm,  for 
as  high  a  9um  as  18/.  sterling.  That  the  breed  is  capable  of 
supporting  great  fatigue  was  evinced  by  the  young  female 
mentioned  by  Pallas,  which  travelled  from  Astracan  to  Mos- 
cow, attached  to  his  post-chaise,  with  only  an  occasional 
night's  repose.  It  afterward  proceeded  in  the  same  manner, 
and  without  being  incommoded  by  the  journey,  700  wersts 
(464)  miles)  from  Moscow  to  Petersburgh.J 

The  Horse. — Arabia  has  been  called  the  native  country  of 
the  horse  ;  and  certainly  if  the  most  valuable  conquest  of  man 
over  the  animal  creation  be  that  of  this  noble  quadruped, 
which  shares  with  him  the  fatigues  of  industry  and  the  glory 
of  war, — ro  nation  better  merits  that  distinction  than  the 
Arabs.  The  care  and  affection  which  they  bestow  in  breed- 
ing and  rearing  it,  and  the  decided  predilection  with  which 
it  is  constantly  regarded,  are  founded  not  merely  on  its  utility 
to  them  in  their  predatory  and  wandering  life,  but  also  on  an 

«  Job  xxxix.  6-8.    t  Diet.  Class.  d'Hist.  Nat.  t.  iii.p.  563. 
X  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Agriculture,  No.  VII. 


THE    HORSE«  397 

ancient  prejudice,  which  induces  them  to  consider  horses  as 
beincrs  endowed  with  generous  sentiments  and  an  intelligence 
superior  to  that  of  other  animals.  They  suppose  that  these 
spirited  creatures,  so  serviceable  in  the  cause  of  Islam,  have 
obtained,  through  Mohammed,  the  blessing  of  God,  and  an 
occult  capacity  to  read  or  repeat  tacitly  every  day  some  verses 
of  the  Koran.  It  was  one  of  their  old  proverbs,  that  after 
man,  the  most  eminent  creature  is  the  horse  ;  the  best  em^ 
ployment  is  that  of  rearing  it ;  the  most  dehghtful  posture  is 
that  of  sitting  on  its  back  ;  the  most  meritorious  of  domestic 
actions  is  that  of  feeding  it.  They  were  taught  by  their  pro- 
phet to  beheve  that  it  was  originally  predestined  for  their 
special  service.  "  WHien  God,"  said  he,  "  wished  to  create 
it^  he  called  the  south  wind,  and  said,  '  I  desire  to  draw  from 
out  of  thee  a  new  being  ;  condense  thyself  by  parting  with 
fluidity,' — and  he  was  obeyed.  He  then  took  a  handful  of  this 
element,  now  become  tangible,  and  blew  upon  it,  and  the 
horse  was  produced.  '  Thou  shalt  be  for  man,'  said  the 
Lord,  '  a  source  of  happmess  and  wealth  ;  he  will  render 
himself  illustrious  by  ascending  thee.'  "  The  "  brood  mares" 
were  particularly  recommended  by  Mohammed  to  his  disci- 
ples, "  because  their  back  is  the  seat  of  honour,  and  their 
belly  an  inexhaustible  treasure.  As  many  grains  of  barley  as 
are  contained  in  the  food  we  give  to  a  horse,  so  many  indul-^- 
gences  do  we  daily  gain  by  giving  it." 

The  care  which  the  Arabs  take  in  classifying  and  preserv- 
ing the  pedigrees  of  their  horses,  to  a  European  must  appear 
almost  incredible.  The  collective  term  whereby  they  desig- 
nate them  in  general  is  Kohayl  or  Kochlani ;  but  they  com- 
monly distribute  them  into  five  great  races,  all  originally  from 
Nejed.  Some  authors  trace  them  back  to  the  most  remote 
times  of  paganism,  assigning  as  their  sire  the  famous  stal^ 
lion  Mashour,  the  property  of  Okrar,  chief  of  the  Beni  Obeida. 
Others  assert  that  they  are  merely  the  issue  of  the  five 
favourite  mares  of  the  prophet,  named  Rhabda,  Nooma, 
Waja,  Sabha,  and  Hezma.  Whatever  be  the  fact  as  to 
these  genealogies,  history  has  certainly  commemorated  from 
a  very  ancient  period  the  names  and  noble  qualities  of  some 
of  the  Arabian  horses.  With  the  beautiful  description  of  the 
war-steed  in  Job  (chap,  xxxix.  19-26)  every  reader  is  fami-- 
har  :  "  His  neck  is  clothed  with  thunder  ;  and  the  glory  of 
his  nostrils  is  terrible  :  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth 

Vol.  n.— LI 


398  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF   ARABU. 

in  his  strength  :  He  mocketh  at  fear  ;  neither  turneth  he  back 
from  the  sword  :  He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness 
and  rage,  and  smelleth  the  battle  afar  off."     The  famous 
racers  Dahes  and  Ghabra  have  been  already  noticed  (vol.  i. 
p.  170),  from  which  it  would  appear  that  the  amusements  of 
the  turf  were  among  the  national  festivals  of  the  ancient 
Bedouins.     D'Herbelot   speaks  of  the  Kamel  el  Sanaieyn, 
an   old   work   which  treats  of    the  keeping    and  physick- 
ing of  horses.     Another  on  the    same   subject,    still  more 
curious,  bears   the  title  of   "  Summary  of  all  tbat  can  be 
desired  to  be   learned   respecting   the    different  Races  of 
Horses:"     According  to  the  author  of  this  treatise,  all  the 
breeds  already  alluded  to  sprung  from  a  stallion  and  a  mare, 
called  Zad  al  Rckeb  and  Serdet  Shekhan,  which  belonged  to 
Muthayer  Ibn  Oshaim,  chief  of  one  of  the  primitive  tribes  of 
Yemen.     He  has  given  a  table,  which  contains  136  races  of 
Arabian  horses, — three  Persian,  nine  Turkoman,  and  seven 
Kurdj— and  mentions  the    Safenet  as  being  of  the  same  spe- 
cies with  those  presented  to  Solomon  by  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 
The  modern  Bedouins  repose  implicit  faith  in  the  traditions 
of  antiquitv,   and  still  reckon  their  five  noble  breeds  to  bs 
descended  from  the  stud  of  the  prophet.    The  following  are  the 
names  : — Taueysc,  Manekeye,  Koheyl,  Saklawye,  and  Jul  fa  ; 
which,  according  to  the  \'ulgar  notion,  are  derived  from  the 
different  districts  of  Nejed,  where  they  were  born.     These 
principal  races  diverge  into  innumerable  ramifications.     The 
Saklawye  is  subdivided  into  the  Jcdran,  Abriyehi  and  Nejm 
cl  Subh  ;  the  Koheyl  into  Ajuz,  Kerda,  Sheikha^  Dabbah,  Ibn 
Khuei/sha,   Khumeyseh,  and  Abu  Moarraff ;  the   Julfa  has 
only  a  single  branch,  that  of  Estemblath.     Besides   these, 
they  have  various   others  of  a   secondary  or  less-esteemed 
breed,   such   as  the  Henaydi,  Abu  Arkub,  Abayan,  Shcraki, 
Shueyman,  Hadaba,  Wedna,  Medhemehy  Khabitha,  Omeriah^ 
and  Sadathukan.     The  different  races  have  not  any  charac- 
teristic marks  by  which  they  can  be  distinguished  from  each 
other.     Every  mare  particularly  swift  and  handsome,  with 
noble  blood  in  her  veins,  may  give  origin  to  a  new  stock,  the 
descendants  of  which  are  called  after  her  ;  so  that  the  cata- 
logue of  distinct  races  in  the  desert  is  almost  endless.     The 
only  means  of  recognising  them  is  by  certificates  of  their 
genealogy,  which  are  drawn  up  by  the  proprietors,  and  at- 
tested by  witnesses  :  in  these  the  issue,  both  masculine  am^ 


THE    HORSE.  399 

feminine,  are  specified  with  great  exactness  ;  so  that  an 
Arabian  horse  offered  for  sale  is  usually  provided  with  his 
title  of  nobility.  The  pedigree  is  often  put  into  a  small 
piece  of  leather,  covered  with  waxed  cloth,  and  suspended 
round  the  animal's  neck.  Burckhardt  has  given  one  of  these 
curious  documents,  which  he  translated  from  the  original  in 
the  handwriting  of  the  Bedouins.     It  is  as  follows  : — 

''  GOD. 
"  Enoch. 

"  In  the  name  of  the  most  merciful  God,  the  Lord  of  all 
creatures,  peace  and  pravers  be  with  our  Lord  Mohammed 
and  his  family  and  his  followers  until  the  day  of  judgment ; 
and  peace  be  with  all  those  who  read  this  writing,  and 
understand  its  meaning. 

"  The  present  deed  relates  to  the  grayish-brown  colt,  with 
four  white  feet  and  a  white  mark  on  the  forehead,  of  the 
tnie  breed  of  Saldavyc,  called  Oheyan,  whose  skin  is  as 
bright  and  unsullied  as  milk,  resembling  those  horses  of  which 
the  Prophet  said,  '  True  riches  are  a  noble  and  pure  breed 
of  horses;'  and  of  which  God  said,  '  The  war-horses,  those 
which  rushed  on  the  enemy  with  full  blowing  nostrils, — those 
which  plunge  into  the  battle  early  in  the  morning.'  And  God 
spoke  the  truth  in  his  incomparable  book.  This  Saklawye 
gi-ay  colt  was  bought  by  Khoshrun,  the  son  of  Emheyt,  of 
the  tribe  of  Zebaa,  an  Aeneze  Arab.  The  sire  of  this  colt 
is  the  excellent  bay  horse  called  Merdjan,  of  the  breed  of 
Koheylan  ;  its  dam  is  the  famous  white  Saklawye  mare 
known  by  the  name  of  Djeroua.  According  to  what  we  have 
seen,  we  attest  here,  upon  our  hopes  of  felicity  and  upon  our 
girdles,  0  Sheiks  of  Wisdom  and  Possessors  of  Horses  ! 
this  gray  colt,  above  mentioned,  is  more  noble  even  than  his 
sire  and  dam.  And  this  we  attest,  according  to  our  best 
knowledge,  by  this  valid  and  perfect  deed.  Thanks  be  to 
God,  the  Lord  of  all  creatures  ! — "Written  on  the  16th  of 
Saphar,  in  the  year  1223  (A.  D.  1808).     Witness,"  &c. 

This  purity  of  blood  and  descent  the  Bedouins  are  extremely 
careful  to  preserve  uncontaminated.  During  twenty  days,  at 
a  certain  season,  the  mare  must  be  watched  to  secure  her 
from  the  approaches  of  any  common  horse,  which  she  is  not 
allowed  to  see,  even  at  a  distance  ;  for  the  Arabs  are  be- 
lievers in  the  effects  of  imagination  on  the  progeny  of  their 
cattle.     Wliea  tjie  foal  is  produced-  the  same  witnesses  mu&i 


400  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

be  present,  and  within  seven  days  a  notarial  certificate  of 
its  legitimacy  is  made  out,  in  which  is  wTitten  an  account  of 
the  colt's  distinctive  marks,  with  the  names  of  its  sire  and 
dam.  These  genealogical  tables,  called  Hujeh,  never  ascend 
to  the  granddams,  because  it  is  understood  that  every  Arab 
of  the  tribe  knows  by  tradition  the  purity  of  the  whole  breed. 
Nor  are  such  testimonials  at  all  necessary  in  the  interior  of 
the  desert,  where  many  horses  are  of  such  illustrious  descent 
that  thousands  can  attest  their  nobility.  A  Bedouin  would 
laugh  at  being  asked  by  an  inhabitant  of  Nejed  for  the  pedi- 
gree of  his  mare ;  wTitten  evidence  he  never  thinks  of  pro- 
ducing, except  when  attending  distant  markets,  such  as  Bus- 
sora,  Bagdad,  Damascus,  Aleppo,  Medina,  or  Mecca,  A 
colt,  at  the  moment  of  birth,  is  never  allowed  to  drop  upon 
the  ground  ;  they  receive  it  in  their  arms,  and  so  cherish  it 
for  several  hours,  washing  and  stretching  its  tender  limbs, 
and  caressing  it  as  they  would  a  baby.  After  this  they 
place  it  on  its  legs,  and  watch  its  feeble  steps  with  par- 
ticular attention,  prognosticating  from  that  time  its  future 
excellencies  or  defects.  The  ears  are  tied  together  over 
its  head  with  a  string,  that  they  may  assume  a  fine  pointed 
direction ;  the  tail  is  pressed  upwards,  and  other  mea- 
sures taken  at  the  same  time,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
carried  high.  The  only  care  taken  of  the  dam  is  to  wrap  a 
piece  of  linen  cloth  round  her  body,  which  is  removed  next 
day.  At  the  end  of  a  month  the  foal  is  weaned,  and  for  the 
space  of  a  hundred  days  thereafter  it  is  permitted  no  other 
food  than  camel's  milk.  "V\Tien  that  period  has  elapsed  it 
receives  a  daily  portion  of  wheat  diluted  with  water.  A 
handful  only  is  given  at  first ;  by  degrees  this  quantity  is 
increased ;  although  milk  still  continues  to  be  its  principal 
food.  T\ds  diet  continues  a  hundred  days  more  ;  and  when 
this  second  period  has  expired,  it  is  allowed  to  eat  grass,  and 
is  fed  on  barley  ;  receiving  every  evening,  along  with  that 
provender,  a  bucket  of  camel's  milk,  should  the  tent  happen 
to  be  well  supphed  with  it.  The  Nejed  Arab  gives  his  colts 
neither  barley  nor  wheat,  but  nourishes  them  with  a  paste  of 
dates  and  water  ;  and  sometimes  to  a  favourite  he  will  give 
the  fragments  or  leavings  of  his  own  meals.  In  that  province 
horses  are  regularly  fed  upon  dates  ;  at  Deraiah  and  in  El 
Hassa  the  dates  are  mixed  with  birsim,  or  dried  clover. 
The  wealthier  classes  often  give  them  flesh,  raw  as  well  as 


THE    HORSE.  401 

boiled ;  and  sometimes  before  the  commencement  of  a  long 
journey  they  get  roasted  meat,  that  they  may  be  the  better 
able  to  endure  fatigue.  A  native  of  Hamah  told  Burckhardt, 
that  in  order  to  prevent  a  favourite  horse  from  faUing  into 
the  hands  of  the  governor  of  that  town,  he  fed  it  for  a 
fortnight  exclusively  on  roasted  pork,  which  excited  its  mettle 
to  such  a  degree  that  it  became  absolutely  unmanageable, 
and  could  be  no  longer  an  object  of  desire  to  the  avaricious 
functionary.  In  Egypt,  vicious  horses  are  cured  of  the  habit 
of  biting  by  having  a  leg  of  mutton  presented  to  them  newly 
taken  from  the  fire  ;  the  pain  which  the  animal  feels  in  seiz- 
ing the  hot  meat  with  its  teeth  teaches  it  in  a  few  lessons 
more  gentleness  of  temper.  The  Arab  steed,  like  its  mas- 
ter, is  accustomed  to  the  inclemency  of  all  weathers.  During 
the  whole  year  they  are  kept  in  the  open  air,  being  seldom 
taken  into  a  tent  even  in  the  rainv  season.  The  Bedouins 
never  rub  or  clean  their  horses  ;  but  take  care  to  walk  them 
gently  whenever  they  return  after  a  ride.  They  generally 
rest  in  a  standing  position,  and  have  been  known  to  remain 
on  their  legs  for  years  in  succession  without  lying  down. 
Yet  with  so  little  attention  to  health  they  are  seldom  ill. 
The  most  prevalent  diseases  are  the  gripes,  farcy,  warbles, 
surfeit  jaundice,  strangles,  mange,  broken  wind,  and  watery 
swellings  upon  the  stomach.  Burning  is  the  most  general 
remedy.  To  cure  the  strangles  they  rub  the  tumours  with  a 
paste  made  of  barley,  chaff,  and  butter  ;  at  the  same  time 
the  smoke  of  a  linen  rag  died  with  indigo  is  inhaled  up  the 
animal's  nostrils,  which  occasions  a  copious  discharge.  In 
eases  of  surfeit  they  bleed  the  horse's  feet,  and  wrap  the 
skin  of  a  sheep  newly  killed  round  its  body.  They  have  no 
use  for  farriers,  except  for  making  shoes,  which  are  of  a  soft 
flexible  iron,  hammered  cold,  and  very  small,  that  the  swilt- 
ness  may  not  be  impeded.  They  give  different  names  both 
to  fillies  and  colts  every  year  until  the  age  of  four.*  In  gen- 
eral, they  do  not  allow  their  mares  to  breed  until  they  have 

*  So  extremely  accurate  are  the  Arabs  in  every  thing  relating 
to  their  horses,  that  they  have  invented  appropriate  names  for 
distinguishing  the  several  competitors  in  a  race,  according  to 
their  respective  merits.  Instead  of  saying  the  first,  second, 
third,  (fee.  as  we  do,  they  call  the  foremost  the  outrunner  of  the 
outrunners:  the  next  the  6acfc-pre«ser  ;  the  third  the  ^ran^wj'Zhzer ,' 
*nd  t^iis  .distinction  they  cofitmue  as  far  as  the  eleventh. 

LU 


402  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA 

completed  their  fifth  year ;  but  the  poorer  class  somethnes 
•wait  no  longer  than  the  fourth,  as  they  are  eager  for  the  pro- 
fits arising  from  the  sale  of  the  foals.     The  colts  are  usually 
ridden  after  the  completion  of  the  second  year,  and  from  the 
time  they  are  first  mounted  the  saddle  is  but  rarely  taken  off 
their  backs.    In  winter  a  coarse  sackcloth  is  thrown  over  them, 
and  in  summer  they  stand  exposed  to  the  mid-day  sun.    Their 
saddles  are  of  wood,  covered  with  Spanish  leather  ;  but  they 
have  no  pommels,  instead  of  which  they  make  use  of  stitched 
felt.     The  stirrups  are  very  short,  with  flat  square  bottoms 
and  sharp-pointed  corners,  which  answer  the  purpose  of  spurs  ; 
the  slightest  touch  makes  the  animal  fly  like  the  wind,  while 
the  rider  bears  himself  upon  the  stirrups  that  he  may  use  his 
lance  with  greater  vigour.     The  Nejed  Bedouins   have  no 
other  saddles  than  a  stuflfed  sheep-skin  ;  they  all  ride  without 
stirrups  or  bridles,  guiding  the   horse  merely  with  a  halter. 
This  is  nowise  surprising,  when  the  extreme  docility  of  the 
animal  is  considered, — without  vice  of  any  kind, — and  more 
the  friend  and  companion  than  the  slave  of  his  master.    When 
not  employed  in  war  or  travelhng,  they  loiter  about  the  tents, 
often  going  over  heaps  of  children  lying  on  the  ground,  and 
carefully  picking  their   steps    lest   they   should   hurt   them. 
They  allow  themselves    to   be   kissed   and  toyed   with,   or 
hugged  round  the  neck,  without  doing  the  smallest  injurv. 
The  different  colours  of  Arabian  horses  are  clear  bay  (ahmar), 
brown  bay  {adhem),   sorrel  (ashekwar),  white  {ahead),  pure 
gray  (azrek),   mottled    gray  (raktha),  bluish   gray  (akhdar), 
black  (udhern),  and  dark  chesnut  {ulmar  mukruk) :  black  and 
light  bays  {aswad  and  ashehah)  are  unknown  in  Arabia,  and 
only  found  in  Persia,  Tartary,  and  Turkey. 

In  general,  these  animals  are  of  a  middle  size,  of  a  slender 
delicate  shape,  light  and  active,  rather  lean  than  fat,  but  of 
surprising  swiftness,  and  accustomed  to  the  fatigue  of  long 
marches.  They  have  small  ears,  little  belly,  and  a  short 
scanty  tail.  They  are  almost  invariably  free  from  apparent 
deformities,  and  so  gentle  that  women  or  children  may  man- 
age them.  The  physical  qualities  which  the  Arabs  prize 
most  in  this  animal  are  the  following  : — Neck  long  and  arched, 
— head  small, — ears  tapering  and  almost  meeting  at  the 
points, — eyes  large  and  full  of  fire, — lower  jaw  thin, — muzzle 
bare, — wide  nostrils, — belly  not  too  broad, — sinewy  legs, — 
pasterns  short  and  flexible, — hoofs  hard  and  ample, — chest 
broad, — rump  high  and  rounded.     Whenever  the  three  beau- 


THE    HORSE.  403 

ties  of  head,  neck,  and  rump,  are  found  combined,  the  horse 
is  considered  as  perfect.  There  are  several  particular  marks 
or  natural  signs  which  the  Arabs  regard  as  sinister  and  un- 
favourable ;  while  others  are  esteemed  the  reverse,  and  capa- 
ble of  producing  happiness  to  the  owner.  They  reckon  about 
twenty  evil  indications  ;  but  the  only  bad  effect  they  have  on 
the  animal  is  that  of  depreciating  its  value  by  two-thirds  or 
more.  The  Persian  and  Turkoman  horses,  whose  figures 
are  much  alike,  differ  from  the  Arabian  in  this,  that  they  are 
more  corpulent,  and  their  coat  is  not  so  soft  to  the  touch.  It 
is,  moreover,  an  opinion  pretty  generally  received  in  the 
East,  that  the  latter  are  especially  distinguished  from  the 
others  by  the  repugnance  they  evince  towards  clear  water  ; 
while  that  which  is  turbid  pleases  them  to  such  a  degree, 
that  they  never  fail  to  prance  about  in  any  that  happens  to 
come  in  their  way.  The  price  of  Arabian  horses  is  variable, 
and  often  depends  much  on  the  caprice  of  the  buyer  and 
seller :  in  Syria,  it  fluctuates  from  10/.  to  120Z.  A  good 
mare  can  scarcely  be  obtained  under  601.  ;  and  even  at  that 
price  it  is  difficult  to  purchase  one,  as  the  Bedouins  always 
prefer  the  females  to  the  males  for  riding,  because  they  are 
not  accustomed  to  neigh,  and  thus  expose  them  in  their  am- 
buscades to  the  risk  of  detection.  For  a  celebrated  mare  a 
sheik  has  been  known  to  pay  200/.  ;  sometimes  the  price 
has  amounted  to  500/.,  and  even  to  800Z.  The  favourite 
mare  of  Saoud,  named  Koraye,  which  he  constantly  rode  on 
his  expeditions,  was  purchased  from  a  Kahtan  Bedouin  for 
1500  Spanish  dollars.  Kinneir  states  that  1200/.  was  refused 
for  one  at  Aleppo.  At  Bussora,  where  they  form  an  import- 
ant article  of  trade  with  India,  the  average  price  is  about  300 
rupees,  though  the  cost  is  thrice,  or  even  five  times  as  much 
at  Bombay  or  Calcutta.  Over  all  Arabia,  as  also  in  Egypt 
and  Syria,  horses  are  possessed  by  several  owners  in  partner- 
ship ;  each  is  divided  into  a  number  of  shares  (kerat),  of 
which  several  may  be  purchased  by  a  single  individual.  If 
an  Aeneze  has  a  mare  of  remarkable  breed,  he  seldom  or 
never  consents  to  sell  her  without  reserving  one-half  or  two- 
thirds  for  himself.  The  ownership  of  the  progeny  is  regu- 
lated by  special  compact :  the  fillies  of  the  first  or  second 
year  belong  to  the  seller ;  those  of  the  subsequent  years 
become  the  property  of  the  buyer.     This  contract  is  called 


404  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

"  selling  the  mare's  belly  ;"  and  in  this  manner  most  of  the 
Arabian  breeders  are  held  in  joint  property.  Sometimes  the 
dam  and  her  offspring  are  disposed  of  in  equal  shares,  or  on 
condition  that  the  booty  shall  be  equally  divided  between  the 
original  owner  and  the  man  who  rides  her.  As  the  Bedouins 
are  ignorant  of  those  frauds  by  which  a  European  jockej 
deceives  his  customers,  a  stranger  may  take  a  horse  on  their 
word,  at  first  sight  or  trial,  without  much  risk  of  being 
cheated.  Niebuhr  alleges  that  no  instance  of  false  testi- 
mony was  ever  given  in  respect  to  the  descent  of  a  horse, — 
the  Arabs,  in  his  days,  being  persuaded  that  they  and  their 
families  would  be  cursed  should  they  prevaricate  in  giving 
an  oath  on  a  matter  of  such  consequence  ;  but  the  moderns 
do  not  scruple  to  tell  falsehoods  if  they  find  they  can  make  a 
better  market  by  it.  The  affectionate  terms  in  which  families 
live  with  their  horses  sometimes  occasion  extreme  regret 
when  they  are  obliged  from  necessity  to  sell  them.  D'Ar- 
vieux  mentions  a  Syrian  merchant  who  cried  most  tenderly 
while  caressing  his  mare,  whose  genealogy  he  could  trace 
for  500  years.  Rubbing  her  with  his  shirt-sleeves,  and  wipr 
incr  her  forehead  with  his  handkerchief,  "  Mv  eyes,"  he 
would  say  to  her,  "  my  heart,  must  I  be  so  unfortimate  as 
to  have  thee  sold  to  so  many  masters,  and  not  to  keep  thee 
all  myself!  I  am  poor,  my  antelope  j  but  I  have  brought 
thee  up  like  my  child  :  I  never  beat  nor  chid  thee  ;  God  pre- 
serve thee,  my  dearest,  from  the  looks  of  the  envious  ;  thou 
art  pretty,  thou  art  sweet,  thou  art  lovely."  It  may  be  re^ 
marked,  that  the  Arabs  have  great  faith  in  certain  supersti- 
tious charms,  which  they  suppose  will  protect  their  horses 
from  accidents.  They  use  talismans  written  on  a  piece  of 
triangular  paper,  which  are  put  into  a  leathern  purse  of  the 
same  shape,  and  fastened  round  the  anin.al's  neck  as  a 
defence  against  witchcraft  from  unlucky  eyes.  A  couple  of 
boar's  tusks,  joined  at  the  extremities  by  a  silver  ring,  is  sus- 
pended from  their  mane,  to  keep  them  from  the  farcy. 
Though  the  Arabs  jusiy  boast  of  their  horses,  it  is  a  common 
error  that  supposes  them  to  be  very  abundant  in  that  cour.' 
try.  In  the  Sacred  Writings,  and  down  to  the  time  of 
Mohammed,  they  are  seldom  mentioned ;  camels  being 
mostly  used  both  in  their  warlike  and  predatory  excursions. 
The  breed  is  limited  to  the  fertile  pasture-grounds,  and  it  is 
tjiefe  pnly  that  they  thrive  ;  while  the  Bedouins  whg  occupy 


THE    CAMEL.  405 

arid  districts  rarely  have  any.  In  Nejed,  they  are  not  nearly 
so  numerous  as  in  the  rich  plains  of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia. 
In  Hejaz,  they  become  scarcer  ;  and  thence  towards  Yemen 
they  become  fewer  still,  both  the  climate  and  pasture  there 
bemg  reckoned  injurious  to  their  health.  The  great  heat  of 
Oman  is  also  deemed  unfavourable  to  them.  In  the  district 
of  Gebel  Shammar  there  are  many  encampments  that  possess 
none  ;  in  Medina  they  are  not  seen,  and  in  Mecca  there  are 
perhaps  not  more  than  sixty  belonging  to  private  individuals  ; 
so  that  the  estimate  of  Burckhardt  is  perhaps  correct,  when 
he  affirms  that,  from  Akaba  to  the  shores  of  Hadramaut, 
comprising  the  great  chain  of  mountains  and  the  western 
plains  towards  the  sea,  the  amount  of  horses  is  not  more  than 
5000  or  6000  ;  while  the  aggregate  number  in  the  whole 
peninsula  does  not  exceed  50,000, — a  number  far  inferior  to 
what  the  same  superficial  extent  in  any  other  part  of  Asia  or 
Europe  would  furnish.  The  rich  pastures  are  not  only 
stocked  more  abundantly,  but  likewise  produce  the  finest  and 
most  select  race.  The  best  Koheyls  of  the  Khomse,  or  noble 
breed,  are  found  among  the  Aenezes  and  the  Rowallas  in 
Nejed  and  the  Hauran,  towards  the  Euphrates.  They  are 
not  all  of  the  most  perfect  or  distinguished  quality  ;  and  per- 
haps not  above  five  or  six  in  a  whole  tribe  deserve  the  name 
of  first-rate  in  respect  to  size,  bone,  beauty,  and  action.  But 
still  their  numbers  are  considerable  ;  each  of  which  may  be 
bought,  if  purchased  in  the  desert,  at  from  150Z.  to  200Z, 
Taking  the  comparative  excellence  of  the  diflTerent  races  on 
an  average,  Nejed  is  generally  reckoned  to  produce  the 
noblest ;  Hejaz,  the  handsomest ;  Yemen,  the  most  durable  ; 
Syria,  the  richest  in  colour  ;  Mesopotamia,  the  most  quiet ; 
Egypt,  the  swiftest ;  Barbary,  the  most  prolific  ;  Persia  and 
Kurdistan,  the  most  warlike. 

The  Camel. — This  useful  animal  is  esteemed  by  Eastern 
nations  one  of  the  most  precious  gifts  of  Providence  to  man. 
It  seems  formed  and  qualified  by  nature  for  a  life  of  patient 
drudgery.  Justly  has  the  Arab,  to  whose  comfort  and  ac- 
commodation it  is  indispensable,  named  it  the  Living  Ship  of 
the  Desert,  as  without  it  he  could  neither  transport  himself 
nor  his  merchandise  across  those  oceans  of  sand  with  which 
his  country  is  covered.  Descriptions  of  its  habits  and  uses 
have  been  so  often  given,  since  the  times  of  Aristotle  and 
Pliny,  who  have  treated  with  remarkable  accuracy  of  the 


408  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

only  two  distinct  species  of  this  genus  which  are  known,  that 
we  shall  restrict  our  account  to  what  may  be  consider-ed 
peculiar  to  it  as  an  inhabitant  of  Arabia.  Between  the  races 
of  camels  in  the  northern  and  southern  provinces  there  is  a 
considerable  difference.  On  the  borders  of  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia they  are  covered  with  thick  hair,  and  in  general 
attain  to  a  much  greater  size  than  in  Hejaz,  where  they  have 
very  little  wool.  The  prevailing  colour  of  the  Arabian  breed 
is  brown  or  black  :  further  south,  as  in  Egypt,  the  hue  be- 
comes lighter  ;  and  towards  Nubia  they  are  mostly  white. 
The  largest  kind  are  from  Anatolia,  of  the  Turkoman  race  ; 
and  the  smallest  from  Yemen.  Those  of  the  Eastern  Desert 
near  the  Euphrates  are  reputed  the  best  for  carriage  ;  the 
Eg}'ptian  are  less  qualified  than  any  other  to  undergt)  fatigue, 
being  too  well  fed  to  endure  the  privations  of  the  wilderness. 
The  Syrian  camel,  though  smaller  than  the  Anatolian,  bears 
heat  and  thirst  much  better.  The  natives  of  Nejed  are  not 
only  remarkable  for  their  fecundity,  but  are  less  susceptible 
of  epidemic  diseases  than  most  others  ;  hence  they  are  pre- 
ferred by  the  Bedouins,  who  repair  thither  from  all  quarters 
that  they  may  renew  their  flocks.  So  rich  and  abundant  is 
that  province  in  the  produce  referred  to,  that  it  has  obtained 
the  appellation  of  Om  el  Bel,  or  the  Mother  of  Camels.  In 
Yemen  they  are  plentiful  ;  but  in  Hejaz,  where  pasture  is 
scanty,  their  number  is  very  limited. 

The  Arabs  are  in  the  habit  of  producing  a  variety  of  kinds 
by  crossing  the  breed.  The  young  ones  are  weaned  in  the 
beginning  of  the  second  year,  and  they  call  them  by  different 
names  according  as  they  are  one,  two,  three,  or  four  years 
old  ;  the  latter  being  the  period  when  they  begin  to  propagate. 
To  prevent  them  from  sucking,  a  small  piece  of  wood,  four 
inches  long  and  sharp  pointed,  is  driven  up  the  palate  and 
comes  out  at  the  nostril,  which  pricks  the  mother.  Some- 
times the  teats  are  covered  with  a  thin  round  board,  or  a 
camlet  bag,  which  is  fastened  with  a  string  tied  round  the 
body.  After  the  fore-teeth  have  reached  their  full  length,  the 
first  pair  of  grinders  appear,  about  the  commencement  of  the 
sixth  year  ;  the  second,  third,  and  last  pair  make  their  ap- 
pearance at  the  end  of  two  years  successively  ;  so  that  the 
.animal  does  not  complete  its  full  growth  until  the  age  of 
twelve,  when  it  is  called  ras.  It  will  live  as  long  as  fqrty 
years  :  but  after  twenty-five  or  thirty  its  activity  begins  to 


THE    CAMEL.  40? 

V 

r 

fail-,  and  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  enduring  much  fatigue. 
If  it  become  lean  after  passing  the  sixteenth  year,  the  x\rabs 
say  that  it  can  never  again  be  rendered  fat  ;  and  in  that  case 
they  generally  sell  it  at  a  low  price  to  the  peasants.  WTien 
fed  upon  tender  verdure,  this  animal  improves  so  much  that 
he  seems  no  longer  to  belong  to  the  hard-working  or  caravan 
species  ;  and  when  he  has  attained  the  full  degree  of  fatnesSj 
his  hump  assumes  the  shape  of  a  pyramid,  extending  its  base 
over  the  entire  back.  None  of  this  description,  however,  are 
found  except  among  the  wealthy  Bedouins  in  the  interior,  who 
keep  whole  herds  solely  for  the  purpose  of  propagating  the 
species.  In  some  provinces  butter  is  made  of  the  camel's 
milk  ;  the  Aenezes  and  other  northern  tribes  use  it  as  drink, 
and  also  as  food  for  their  horses.  About  the  end  of  spring 
the  wool,  which  seldom  exceeds  two  lbs.  a-head,  is  easily 
taken  off  the  skin  with  a  person's  hand.  All  the  flocks  of 
the  different  owners  are  branded  with  a  hot  iron,  that  they 
may  be  recognised  should  they  stray  or  be  stolen.  The  prop* 
erty  af  each  has  a  peculiar  markj — a  ring,  a  cross,  or  a  tri* 
angle,  which  is  usually  placed  on  the  neck  or  the  left  shoul- 
der. When  called  home  in  the  evening,  wliich  is  done  by 
uttering  a  sound  resembling  that  of  the  letter  r,  every  ani- 
mal knows  its  master's  face;  and  putting  its  own  to  hisj  drops 
down  upon  its  knees  as  if  to  ask  for  supper. 

The  two  grand  services  in  which  camels  are  employed  are 
ridinor  and  carriage.  Among  the  Bedouins  females  are 
always  more  esteemed  and  dearer  than  the  males  :  the  latterj 
on  the  contrary,  are  most  valued  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  where 
the  quality  chiefly  wanted  is  strength  in  bearing  heavy  loads. 
The  wandering  tribes  in  Nejed  prefer  he-camels  for  riding, 
while  the  peasants  use  only  the  females  on  their  journeys, 
because  they  support  thirst  better.  The  term  deloul  is  ap- 
plied to  those  that  are  trained  to  the  saddle,  of  which  the 
most  swift  and  easy-paced  are  said  to  be  from  Oman,  though 
some  of  the  Aenezes  have  likewise  excellent  breeds.  They 
differ  little  from  the  others  in  appearance,  except  that  their 
lews  are  somewhat  more  straight  and  slender  ;  but  there  is  a 
noble  expression  in  their  eye  and  in  their  whole  deportment, 
by  which  the  generous  among  all  animals  may  be  distin' 
finished.  In  Egypt  and  Nubia,  the  delouls  are  called  hejein  I 
they  are  very  docile,  and  have  a  pleasant  amble.  The  deloul 
saddle,  throughout  every  part  of  Arabia,  is  called  ^hciad'i 


408  NATURAL    HISTORY   OF    ARABIA. 

and  in  the  equipping  of  this  article  the  Arab  women  on  all 
occasions  make  a  great  display.  In  Hejaz,  they  use  a  kind 
of  palanquin  named  shebriahj  having  a  seat  made  of  twisted 
straw,  about  five  feet  in  length,  placed  across  the  saddle^ 
with  cross-bars  above,  over  which  mats  or  carpets  are  spread 
to  screen  the  traveller  from  the  sun.  Similar  machines,  but 
shorter  and  narrower,  are  occasionally  suspended  lengthwise 
on  each  side  of  the  animal  :  these  are  called  skekdcf,  and 
contain  one  person  each  ;  but  they  do  not  admit  of  his 
stretching  himself  at  full  length,  as  in  the  other  vehicle. 
These  conveyances  are  chiefly  used  for  women,  who  pay 
great  attention  to  fashion  and  etiquette  in  their  equipage, 
A  lady  of  the  Aene'zes  prefers  a  white  or  a  gray  camel,  while 
a  belle  in  the  Nejed  would  think  herself  degraded  were  she" 
to  ride  any  other  than  a  black  one.  In  Syria  and  Mesopota- 
mia the  Arabs  are  in  the  practice  of  mounting  their  saddles 
with  small  swivel-guns,  which  turn  upon  the  pommel  and  are 
found  to  be  as  serviceable  in  the  way  of  inspiring  terror  as 
the  heaviest  pieces  of  artillery.  The  first  thing  that  a  Be^ 
douin  examines  about  his  camel  when  preparing  for  a  long 
journey  is  the  hump.  Should  he  find  it  large,  he  knows  that 
the  animal  will  endure  considerable  fatigue,  even  with  a  very 
moderate  allowance  of  food  ;  for  he  believes  in  the  proverb^ 
that  "  the  camel  can  subsist  for  one  expedition  on  the  fat  of 
its  own  hump  !"  This  index  is  indeed  an  infallible  criterion 
as  to  the  ability  for  exertion,  for  whenever  it  subsides  the 
beast  gradually  yields  to  fatigue.  A  long  journey  will  cause 
the  hump  almost  entirely  to  disappear  :  it  is  easily  restored^ 
however,  by  a  few  weeks  of  good  nourishment  and  repose. 
The  favourite  pace  of  the  riding-camel  is  a  kind  of  gentle 
and  easy  amble  at  the  rate  of  5  or  5^  miles  an  hour ;  and  this 
speed  the  more  robust  will  continue  for  six  days  in  succes- 
sion. *'  His  back  is  so  soft,"  an  x\rab  will  say  in  conmienda- 
tion  of  this  agreeable  trot,  "  that  you  may  drink  a  cup  of 
coffee  while  you  ride  him." 

Many  stories  were  related  to  Burckhardt  concerning  the 
wonderful  performances  of  a  breed  in  Egypt  and  Nubia  called 
oshari,  implying  a  camel  that  could  travel  ten  days'  journey 
in  one  ;  but  these  exploits  he  consid-ered  to  be  inventions  of 
the  Bedouins  to  amuse  credulous  strangers.  The  greatest 
feat  of  this  kind  that  ever  came  to  his  knowledge  was  that 
of  a  camel  which  was  to  go  for  a  wager  from  Esneh  to  Genne 


THE    CAMEL.  409 

and  back  again  between  sunrise  and  sunset ;  the  whole  dis- 
tance  being  equal  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles.  In  eleven 
hours  its  strength  failed,  after  having  finished  about  one  hun- 
dred  and  fifteen  miles^  and  lost  twenty  minutes  in  twice 
crossing  the  Nile  in  a  ferry-boat ;  but  had  it  not  been  urged 
to  forced  exertion,  it  would  probably  have  performed  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  or  even  two  hundred  miles  within  the  space 
of  twenty-four  hours.  Messengers  have  travelled  in  seven 
days  from  Bagdad  to  Aleppo,  which  is  a  journey  of  twenty- 
five  ;  and  from  Cairo  by  land  to  Mecca,  which  is  forty-five 
stations,  in  eighteen  days,  without  changing  their  camels. 
But  the  swiftness  of  this  animal  never  approaches  for  short 
distances  even  to  that  of  a  common  horse  :  though  it  is  per- 
haps unrivalled  for  the  ease  with  which  it  will  despatch  an 
uninterrupted  journey  of  several  days  and  nights  if  allowed 
its  own  natural  pace.  Twelve  miles  an  hour  is  reckoned  its 
utmost  degree  of  celerity  in  trotting  ;  at  full  speed  it  may  gal- 
lop from  sixteen  to  eighteen,  but  it  cannot  support  so  violent 
an  effort  for  more  than  half  an  hour  without  showing  symj>- 
toms  of  distress.  Niebuhr  calculates  that  the  larger  ones 
make  nine  hundred  and  seventy-five  paces  in  half  an  hour, 
and  the  smaller  one  thousand  and  fifty.  In  those  used  for 
carriage,  strength  is  the  principal  quality  desired.  In  com- 
mon cases  the  load  is  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred 
pounds  for  a  short  journey,  and  from  three  hundred  to  four 
hundred  pounds  for  one  of  any  considerable  distance.  Some 
will  carry  fifteen  cwt.  ;  but  the  longer  the  journey,  and  the 
fewer  wells  on  the  route,  the  lighter  is  the  burden.  The 
capability  of  bearing  thirst  varies  considerably  among  the 
different  races.  The  Anatolian  camel  requires  water  every 
second  day  :  in  Arabia,  the  utmost  extent  to  which  they  can 
endure  in  summer  without  drinking  is  four  days,  and  in  cases 
of  absolute  necessity  they  may  perhaps  go  five  :  but  in  the 
caravans  from  Darfur  they  travel  nine  or  ten  days  without 
water.  Burckhardt  never  heard  that  the  Arabs,  even  in  the 
extremity  of  their  distress,  slaughtered  this  animal  for  the 
sake  of  finding  a  supply  in  its  stomach  to  allay  their  thirst ; 
nor  did  he  think  it  likely  that  they  would  resort  to  this  expe- 
dient, as  their  own  destruction  was  involved  in  that  of  the 
beast  on  which  they  rode.  In  Egypt  they  are  guided  by  a 
cord  attached  to  a  nose-ring  ;  but  those  of  Arabia  seldom 
have  their  nose  perforated,  and  ara  more  obedient  to  the 
Vol.  II  — M  m 


410  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    AEA.BTA. 

she-*'  «tick  of  the  rider  than  to  the  bridle.  The  drivers  have- 
a  song  full  of  guttural  sounds  that  they  chant,  and  by  which 
the  animals  know  to  halt,  walk,  trot,  eat,  drink,  stop,  or  lie 
down.  In  loading  or  unloading  they  are  taught  to  obey  a 
particular  signal,  crouching  down  upon  the  ground  with  their 
legs  bent  under  them,  so  that  the  rider  may  get  off  and  mount 
again  without  trouble.  They  are  content  with  the  scantiest 
tare, — a  bunch  of  dry  grass  or  the  stunted  shrubs  of  the 
desert.  Their  ordinary  food  is  a  ball  of  paste  {maaOouk) 
"weighing  about  a  pound,  made  of  barley-meal  and  water, 
which  each  receives  in  the  evening  ;  and  this  is  all  the  daily 
expense  of  these  useful  creatures.  The  value  of  the  camel 
depends  of  course  on  its  kind  and  quality.  In  Hejaz,  Burck- 
hardt  states  that  the  price  of  a  good  one  was  sixty  dollars,  or 
14/.  ;  but  they  sometimes  cost  150,  or  35/.  ;  and  Saoud  has 
been  known  to  pay  as  much  as  300,  or  70/.,  for  one  of  the 
Om-an  breed.  They  are  subject  to  various  defects  and  dis- 
eases, which  very  much  affect  their  value  ;  such  as  stiffness 
of  the  neck,  tremor  and  swellings  in  the  hind-legs,  pustules 
about  the  mouth,  ulceration  below  the  chest,  and  colic  and 
diarrhoea,  which  generally  prove  fatal.  To  most  of  these 
distempers  the  Arabs  apply  cauterv',  as  well  as  to  the  wounds 
or  injuries  which  are  often  occasioned  by  bad  pack-saddles,. 
or  burdens  of  too  great  a  weight.  No  pain,  however,  pro- 
vokes the  generous  animal  to  refuse  the  load  or  throw  it  on 
the  ground.  Overcome  with  hunger  and  fatigue,  it  spends 
its  latest  breath  in  its  master's  service,  and  leaves  its  bones 
to  whiten  and  rot  in  the  desert. 

Dromedary. — This  animal  was  considered  by  the  ancients 
as  a  distinct  species  of  the  camel.  Diodorus  and  Strabo 
gave  it  the  appellation  of  dromos  or  the  runner,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Bacht,  or  Bactrian  camel,  which  was  reckoned  best 
adapted  for  carr}'ing  burdens.  It  is,  however,  rather  a  va- 
riety of  the  same  species,  and  is  found  sometimes  with  a 
single  and  sometimes  with  a  double  hump.  It  breeds  readily 
with  the  conunon  camel.  The  Anatolian  or  Turkoman  race 
are  produced  between  an  Arab  she-camel  and  the  double- 
humped  dromedrary  from  the  Crimea.  A  dromedary  and  a 
she  Turkoman  produce  a  small  handsome  camel  (called 
iaous),  which  has  a  very  thick  growth  of  long  hair  under  the 
neck  reaching  almost  to  the  ground  ;  and  two  humps,  one  of 
which  the  natives  cut  off  to  render  it  more  fit  for  bearing  a 


SHEEP GOATS DOGS.  411 

ioad.  The  Arabs 'have  none  with  a  double  hump  ;  nor  did 
Burckhardt  meet  with  any  of  them  in  Syria ;  and  the  only 
one  seen  by  Niebuhr  was  in  a  town  in  Anatolia,  to  which  it 
had  been  brought  from  the  Crimea.  "It  diifers,"  says  Hen- 
niker,  "  in  its  make,  its  uses,  and  its  master,  only  as  a  hunter 
differs  from  a  pack-horso."  Chenier  says  this  animal  can 
travel  sixty  leagues  in  a  day,  or  145^  miles  ;  and  some  of 
the  African  Bedouins  have  offered  to  ride  400  miles  through 
the  Great  Sahara  in  four  days.  His  motion  is  so  violent  and 
rapid  that  the  rider  must  be  girded  to  the  saddle,  and  have  a 
handkerchief  before  his  mouth  to  break  the  current  of  the 
wind. 

Sheep  and  goats  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  pastoral 
wealth  of  the  Arabs,  but  there  seems  to  be  nothing  very 
peculiar  in  the  breed.  Russell  and  Barthema  relate  that  the 
sheep  have  a  thick  and  broad  tail,  which  they  drag  behind 
them,  supported  on  a  small  carriage.  In  Hejaz,  Ali  Bey 
remarked  that  the  tail,  though  large,  was  less  so  than  in  the 
southern  countries  ;  while  Burckhardt  informs  us,  that  in  the 
northern  deserts  this  appendage  is  of  the  ordinary  size. 
The  ears,  however,  are  rather  bigger  than  those  of  the  com- 
mon Enghsh  kind.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Mecca  and 
Medina  he  noticed  a  dirainutive  species  with  a  white  and 
brown  spotted  skin.  They  are  purchased  as  rarities  by 
foreigners.  At  Cairo,  where  they  are  kept  in  the  houses 
of  the  grandees,  they  are  painted  red  with  henna,  and 
have  a  collar  with  little  bells  hung  round  their  neck  to 
amuse  the  children.  The  Aenezes  shear  their  flocks  yearly 
about  the  end  of  spring  ;  they  generally  sell  the  wool  before 
it  is  cut  from  the  sheep's  back,  at  so  much  per  hundred 
The  greater  part  of  them  are  black,  having  the  head  and 
neck,  or  sometimes  only  the  face,  white.  The  goats  also 
are  mostly  black,  with  long  ears.  The  male  lambs  and  kids 
are  sold  or  slaughtered,  except  two  or  three  which  are  kept 
for  breeding.  The  ewes  and  goats  are  milked  morning  and 
evening  during  the  three  spring  months.  From  the  milk  of 
one  hundred  (which  is  always  mixed  together)  the  Bedouins 
expect,  in  conmion  years,  about  eight  pounds  of  butter  per 
day  ;  of  this  a  single  family  will  consume  about  two  quintals 
(about  two  hundred  and  twenty  pounds)  a  year ;  the  remain- 
der  is  carried  to  the  market. 

Of  dogs  there  are  several  varieties  in  the  domesticated 


412  Natural  history  of  Arabia. 

state.     There  is  a  wild  kind  called  derboun,  of  a  black  col- 
our, wnich  is  found  in  the  country  near  Syria,  and  eaten  by 
the  Fellahs.     Those  which  Ali  Bey  saw  at  Mecca  appeared 
to  be  of  the  shepherd  breed  ;  and  as  they  had  no  owners 
they  roamed   about  the    streets  at   pleasure.     This  animal 
being  declared  unclean  by  the   Koran,  the  Mohammedans 
will  not  allow  it  to  enter  their  houses.     Linnaeus,  speaking 
of  the  dog,  says,  "  a  Mahometanis  expellitur."     In  Egypt, 
they  are  obliged  to  resort  to  the  house-tops ;  and  Burckhardt 
observes,  as  a  circumstance  worthy  of  remark,  that  Medina, 
so  far  as  he  knew,  was  the  only  town  in  the  East  from  which 
they   were    entirely    excluded.     They    are    never   admitted 
within  the  gates,  but  must  remain  in  the  suburbs,  lest  they 
should  chance  to  pollute  the  sanctity  of  the  mosque.     The 
watchmen  assemble  and  make  a  regular  search  once  a  year 
for  the   purpose  of  driving  out  such  intruders  as  may  have 
crept  into  the  city  unperceived.     The  Bedouins,  as  we  learn 
from    Sonnini,  who  are  less   superstitious  than  the  Turks, 
have  a  fine  breed  of  very  tall  greyhounds,  which  serve  not 
only  for  the  chase,  but  likewise  mount  guard  around  their 
tents.     They  have  a  great  affection  for  them,  and  to  kill  one 
of  these  useful  domestics  incurs  a  heavy  penalty.     Keppel, 
on  his  route  from  Korna  to  Bagdad,  saw  some  of  this  species : 
they  are  beautiful  animals,  somewhat  less  in  size  than-  the 
English  ;  the  ears  hang  down  ;  and  these,  as  well  as  the 
tail,  are  covered  with  fine  silky  hair.     He  mentions  an  odd 
circumstance,  that  the  Faithful  are  not  allowed  to  touch  a 
dog  except  on  the  crown  of  the  head  ;  that  being  the  only 
part  free  from  pollution,  as  he  cannot  lick  it  with  his  tongue. 
The  cat  is  held  in  good  repute,  from  the  belief  that  it  was  a 
favourite  with  Mohammed.     It  seems  to  be  the  same  species 
as  the  European,  only  a  little  smaller.     The  domestic  mouse 
of  the  Arabs  resembles  our  own ;  but,  according  to  Ali  Bey, 
they  are   more   fierce  and  troublesome.     "  I  never   saw," 
says  he,  "  any  mice  so  bold  as  those  of  Mecca.     As  I  had 
my  bed  on  the  floor,  they  danced  and  leaped  upon  me  every 
night.     I  gave  them  some  blows,  which  made  them  fly."    In 
spite  of  this  warning,  however,  they  returned  to  the  charge 
and  bit  his  fingers,  having  been  attracted  by  the  smell  of 
gome  balm  of  juniper  which  he  had  been  handling,  and  had 
neglected  to  wash  off.     Even  when  his  bed  was  suspended, 
these  imperturbable  vermin  leaped  from  the  nearest  furniture 


BIRDS.  418 

on  the  coverlid,  and  quietly  stared  him  in  the  face,  but  would 
not  permit  themselves  to  be  touched. 

Birds. — Travellers  have  had  but  few  opportunities  of  ex- 
amining the  winged  tribes  of  Arabia  ;  though  that  country  is 
bv  no  means  deficient  in  the  number  or  variety  which  it 
produces.  In  the  fertile  districts,  tame  fowls  are  very  plen- 
tiful, and  all  sorts  of  poultry, — hens,  ducks,  geese,  and  tur- 
keys,— are  bred  in  great  abundance.  The  pintado  or  guinea- 
fowl  is  not  domestic  ;  but  they  inhabit  the  woods  in  such 
numbers,  that  children  kill  them  with  stones,  and  sell  them 
in  the  towns.  The  pheasant,  and  several  varieties  of  the 
pigeon  species,  abound  in  the  forests  of  Yemen.  In  the 
plains  are  to  be  seen  the  gray  partridge,  the  common  lark, 
and  a  sort  of  white  crane  with  the  under  part  of  the  belly  of  a 
beautiful  red.  About  Mount  Sinai,  Henniker  found  many 
coveys  of  partridges  ;  some  the  red-legged  of  the  Grecian 
Isles  ;  others  brown,  and  diflfering  but  httle  from  the  Eng- 
bsh  ;  and  a  third  sort  speckled  like  the  quail.  Over  all  that 
peninsula,  and  in  every  part  of  Syria,  the  katta  (a  kind  of  par- 
tridge) is  met  with  in  immense  numbers,  especially  in  May 
and  June.  They  fly  in  such  large  flocks,  that  the  Arab  boys 
often  knock  down  two  or  three  at  a  time,  merely  by  throwing 
a  stick  among  them.  Burckhardt  thinks  it  not  improbable 
that  this  bird  is  the  seluca,  or  quail  of  the  Children  of  Israel.* 
The  Bedouins  mentioned  to  him  a  large  eagle,  which  carried 
off  their  lambs,  and  whose  outspread  wings  measured  six 
feet.  The  one  called  rakham  is  very  common  in  these 
mountains  ;  and  the  fields  are  infested  by  vast  numbers  of 
crows,  which  are  sometimes  eaten,  although  forbidden  both 
by  the  Mohammedan  and  the  Levitical  law.  Of  birds  of 
prey,  the  Arabs  have  falcons,  sparrow-hawks,  bustards,  and 
vultures.  The  latter  are  of  great  service  to  the  natives  by 
clearing  the  earth  of  all  carcasses,  which  corrupt  very  rap- 
idly, and  are  extremely  noisome  in  warm  climates.  They 
also  destroy  the  fieldraice,  which  multiply  so  prodigiously  in 
some  districts,  that  were  it  not  for  this  assistance  the  pea- 
sant would  find  it  absolutely  in  vain  to  cultivate  his  fields. 
It  was  gratitude  for  these  importaiit  offices  that  induced  the 
ancient  Egyptians  to  pay  them  divine  honours  ;  and  even  at 

*  It  has  been  particularly  described  in  Russell's  Hist,  of 
Aleppo,  vol.  ii.  p.  94. 

Mm2 


414  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF   ARABIA. 

present  it  is  held  unlawful  to  kill  them  in  all  hot  countries 
which  they  frequent. 

Tke  Ostrich. — Ostriches  (called  by  the  Arabs  Naamah  and 
TJiar  es  Jemmel,  or  the  camel-bird)  are  to  be  met  with  in  the 
deserts  ;  the  Bedouins,  however,  do  not  tame  them  when 
young,  nor  take  the  trouble  of  hunting  them.  Burckhardt 
saw  two  in  Wady  Tyh  ;  but  on  a  shot  being  fired,  they  were 
out  of  sight  in  an  instant.  They  chiefly  inhabit  the  plains 
towards  Gebel  Shammar  and  Nejed.  When  full  grown,  the 
neck,  particularly  of  the  male,  is  covered  with  beautiful  red 
feathers.  The  plumage  upon  the  shoulders,  back,  and  some 
parts  of  the  wings,  from  being  of  a  dark  grayish  colour,  be- 
comes black  as  jet ;  while  the  tail  and  the  rest  of  the  feathers 
are  of  an  exquisite  whiteness.  The  belly,  thighs,  and  breast 
do  not  partake  of  this  covering,  being  usually  naked.  The 
female  is  of  a  spotted  gray  colour.  Under  the  joint  of  the 
great  pinion,  and  sometimes  \ipon  the  smaller,  there  is  a 
strong  pointed  excrescence  like  a  cock's  spur,  with  which, 
according  to  certain  naturalists,  it  stimulates  itself  when 
pursued.  In  speed  it  outstrips  the  fleetest  horse,  being 
assisted  by  the  quick  vibratory  motion  of  its  wings.  lu 
feeding  it  is  voracious,  devouring  every  thing  indiscrimin- 
ately, insects,  reptiles,  leather,  rags,  wood,  stones,  and  even 
iron.  Shaw  says  he  saw  one  swallow,  without  any  apparent 
uneasiness,  several  leaden  bullets  as  they  were  thrown  upon 
the  floor  scorching  hot  from  the  mould  ;  a  proof  that  they 
are  well  furnished  with  powerful  digestive  organs.  Though 
naturally  shy,  they  are  fierce  and  mischievous  when  tamed, 
especially  to  strangers  ;  they  peck  with  their  bills,  and  strike 
so  violently  with  their  feet,  that  they  have  been  knowm  to 
rip  open  a  man's  belly  with  their  pointed  angular  claw  at  a 
single  blow.  This  bird  breeds  in  the  middle  of  winter,  and 
lays  from  twelve  to  twenty-one  eggs, — some  say  from  thirty 
to  fifty, — while  others  make  them  amount  to  eighty.  The 
nest  is  made  on  the  ground,  generally  at  the  foot  of  some 
isolated  hill.  The  eggs  are  placed  close  together  in  a  circle, 
half-buried  in  the  sand  to  protect  them  from  rain ;  and  a  nar- 
row trench  is  drawn  round,  which  carries  off  the  water.  At 
the  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  this  circle  the  female 
is  said  to  place  several  other  eggs,  which  she  does  not  hatch, 
as  these  are  intended  for  the  young  ones  to  feed  upon  ;  in- 
stinct having  taught  her  to  meike  this  provision  for  her  off- 


THE    SAMARMAN«  415 

«pr'mg,  which  might  otherwise  perish  of  hunger  in  the  desert.* 
The  parents  sit  by  turns  ;  for  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that 
they  leave  their  eggs  to  be  hatched  in  the  sun  ;  and  while 
one  is  on  the  nest  the  other  keeps  watch  on  the  summit  of  the 
adjacent  hill,  which  circumstance  sometimes  enables  the 
Arabs  to  kill  them.  The  usual  mode  of  taking  them  is  by 
digging  a  hole  in  the  ground  near  the  eggs,  into  which  the 
Bedouin  puts  his  loaded  gun  pointed  towards  the  nest,  and 
having  a  long  burning  match  fastened  to  the  lock.  After  he 
has  retired  for  some  time,  the  ostrich  returns,  and  not  per- 
ceiving any  enemy  it  rejoins  its  mate  sitting  upon  the  eggs. 
In  a  short  while,  the  match  being  burnt  down,  the  gun  is 
discharged  ;  and  the  two  birds  are  frequently  killed  at  one 
shot.  The  inhabitants  in  the  district  of  Jof  purchase  and 
eat  their  flesh  ;  the  eggs  are  reckoned  dehcious  food,  and 
are  sold  for  about  a  shilling  each.  The  shells  are  hung  in 
rooms  as  ornaments  ;  and  the  feathers  are  carried  to  the 
markets  of  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  where  they  bring  about 
two  shillings  a  piece.  Sometimes  the  whole  skin  is  sold  with 
the  feathers  upon  it  :  the  price,  when  Burckhardt  was  at 
Aleppo  in  1811,  was  from  250  to  600  piastres  the  rotolo, 
being  from  21.  lOs.  to  6/.  per  lb.  A  beautiful  lapwing 
(called  hudhiid)  is  common  on  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  Arabs  have  a  fabulous  tradition,  perhaps  descended  from 
Solomon,  that  its  language  may  be  understood. 

There  is  a  bird  named  Samarman  or  Samarmog,  to  which 
the  Arabs  pay  a  degree  of  respect  bordering  on  adoration. 
It  is  thought  to  be  a  native  of  Khorasan,  and  is  ranked  among 
the  thrushes  by  Forskal,  who  calls  it  Turdus  seleucus.  It 
comes  annually  into  Arabia  in  pursuit  of  the  locusts,  of 
which  it  destroys  incredible  numbers.  The  service  done 
by  it,  in  protecting  vegetation  from  the  desolating  ravages  of 
these  insects,  has  given  rise  to  several  ridiculous  and  super- 
stitious practices.  The  Syrian  Arabs  believe  that  it  is 
attracted  from  Persia  by  means  of  water,  which  for  this  pur- 
pose they  bring  from  a  distance  with  great  ceremony,  and 
preserve  in  a  stone  reservoir  on  the  top  of  the  tower  of  a 
mosque  at  Mosul.  When  this  consecrated  liquid  fails,  the  in- 
habitants are  in  despair.     The  periodical  visits  of  the  samar 

*  This  instinctive  habit  of  the  female  ostrich  is,  however, 
doubled  by  same  authors. 


416  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA 

tnan  are   easily  accounted  for  on   the  principle  of  instinct, 
which  prompts  it  not  only  to  feed  on  locusts,  but  to  kill  as 
many  of  them  as  possible  ;  and  hence,  it  naturally  follows 
them  in  the  course  of  their  passage.     The  Arabs  named  to 
Forskal  several  other  birds  which  he  could  never  see,  and 
of  which,  consequently,  he  did  not  ascertain  the  genus.     Of 
these  were  the  Sumana  ;  the  Salva,  which  he  understood  to 
be  the  rail,  a  bird  of  passage  which  frequents  some  districts ; 
the  Thar  el  Hind,  remarkable  for  its  gilded  plumage,  and 
supposed  from  the  name  to  come  from  India  ;  the  Ackjal, 
famous  for  the  beautiful  feathers  with  which  the  Highlanders 
adorn  their  bonnets  :  so  careful  is  the  bird  about  their  growth, 
that  it  is  said  to  bore  a  hole  in  the  nest  to  preserve  them  un- 
injured.    Game  is  abundant  in  Arabia,  especially  on  the  plains 
along  the  Euphrates, — the  ancient  kinofdom  of  Nimrod,  that 
"mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord."     The  inhabitants,  how- 
ever, regard  neither  the  exercise  nor  the  amusement  of  fowl- 
ing.    With  a  people  living  in  a  climate  where  animal  food 
is  injurious  to  health,  game  is  despised.     The  precepts  of  the 
Koran  are   inimical  to  the  diversion  of   field-sports.     The 
labours  of  the  huntsman  or  the  fowler  are  lost,  and  his  prev 
becomes  impure,  if  he  has  but  neglected  the  repetition  of  one 
short  prayer  when  he  killed  the  animal  •,  if  it  has  not  lost  the 
exact  quantity  of  blood  required  by  the  law  ;  if  the  beast  or 
bird  struggled  with  any  remains  of  life  after  it  was  shot ;  or 
if  it  fell  upon  a  place  which  was  either  inhabited  or  in  any 
manner  defiled.     These  causes  will  explain  why  the  Arabs 
have  an  apathy  or  aversion  for  those  sports  of  which  savages 
in  other  countries  are  so  passionately  fond.     From  the  nature 
of  the  climate,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  Arabia  possesses 
any  great  variety  of  waterfowl.     In  marshy  places,  however, 
cranes,  herons,  snipes,  storks,  swans,  pelicans,  and  a  beauti- 
ful species  of  the  plover,  are  found.     Sea-birds  are  numerous 
on  the  coasts,  especially  those  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  is  co- 
piously stored  with  fish.     Besides  gulls,  of  which  there  are 
a  variety  of  species,  Niebuhr  saw  in  one  of  the  islands  of 
that  gulf  pelicans  which   had  built  nests,  and  laid  eggs  as 
large  as  those  of  the  common  goose. 

Reptiles. — The  Danish  travellers  never  met  with  the  sea- 
tortoise  ;  but  the  land-tortoise  was  not  uncommon.  In  sev- 
eral places  they  saw  the  peasants  bring  them  in  loads  to  the 
market.     The   Eastern  Christians  eat  them  in   Lent,  and 


REPTILES.  417 

drink  their  blood  with  great  rehsh.  The  hzard-tribe  are  nu- 
merous. On  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys  of  Petraea,  Burck- 
hardt  saw  a  species  called  dhob,  that  has  a  scaly  yellow-col- 
oured skin,  of  which  the  natives  make  tobacco-pouches.  The 
largest  are  about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  the  tail  mea- 
sures nearly  one-half.  Another  sort  of  lizard  is  that  called 
jccko,  the  saliva  of  which,  falling  upon  victuals,  is  said  by 
the  Egyptians  to  infect  the  person  that  eats  them  with  lep- 
rosy. Scorpions  are  numerous  in  the  deserts,  particularly 
on  the  confines  of  Palestine,  which  they  have  continued  to 
infest  since  the  time  when  the  Children  of  Israel  "  passed 
through  that  great  and  terrible  wilderness."  Deut.  viii.  15. 
Ali  Bey  saw  a  very  large  one  in  the  great  court  of  the  Tem- 
ple at  Mecca.  It  was  of  a  sallow  colour,  and  walked  with 
the  tail  bent  over  its  back.  Its  length  appeared  to  be  about 
SIX  inches.  Of  serpents  there  are  several  sorts  whose  bite 
is  mortal ;  though  the  harmless  are  more  numerous  than  th*' 
dangerous.  The  only  kind  that  is  truly  formidable  is  th^'t 
called  bcetarty  a  small  slender  creature,  spotted  black  and 
wliite.  The  bite  is  said  to  cause  instant  death  ;  while  the 
dead  body  is  swelled  by  the  poison  in  a  very  extraordinary 
manner.  It  has  been  remarked  that,  in  general,  life  is  en- 
dangered by  the  wound  of  such  only  as  have  a  distinct  set 
of  teeth  larger  than  the  rest,  which  serve  to  conduct  the 
poison.  Of  this  peculiarity  the  Arabs  are  aware  ;  and  they 
scruple  not  to  play  freely  with  these  reptiles  after  the  fatal 
teeth  are  extracted.  In  some  species,  the  bite  occasions 
merely  a  disagreeable  itching,  which  the  Bedouins  cure  by 
applying  the  leaves  of  the  caper-tree.  Serpents  are  very 
common  in  the  Petraean  deserts.  On  the  shore  near  Akaba 
Burckhardt  observed  the  sand  everywhere  bearing  impres- 
sions of  their  passage  crossing  each  other  in  all  directions  ; 
and  from  the  traces  it  appeared  that  the  bodies  of  some  of 
them  could  not  be  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter.  He 
was  told  that  the  fishermen  were  much  afraid  of  them,  and 
always  extinguished  their  fires  in  the  evening  before  going 
to  sleep,  as  the  light  was  known  to  attract  them.  It  was 
while  traversing  these  wilds,  "  from  Hor  to  the  Red  Sea,  to 
compass  the  land  of  Edom,"  that  many  of  the  Israehtes  were 
destroyed  by  these  venomous  reptiles  (Numb.  xxi.  4-6.  Deut. 
viii.  15),  called  somewhat  inaccurately  fiery  or  flying  serpents.* 

*  The  meaning  of  the  original  is  "  serpents  whose  b'te  causes 


418  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

Fishes. — The  Arabian  seas  swarm  with  all  sorts  of  fishes. 
In  the  short  passage  between  Suez  and  Jidda,  Forskal  ob- 
served more  than  a  hundred  new  species,  only  a  part  of  which 
ne  could  rank  among  the  known  genera.  Of  these  were 
some  with  which  he  was  familiar  ;  such  as  crabs,  oysters, 
cod,  mackerel,  mullet,  scarus,  perch,  and  ray,  but  of  species 
unknown  in  our  seas.  Others,  such  as  the  Chatodon  and  the 
Sci<£na,  are  peculiar  to  the  waters  of  hot  climates.  Troops 
of  flying-fishes  were  seen,  which  rose  from  time  to  time 
above  the  surface.  Of  those  observed  by  Captain  Head  near 
Loheia,  some  were  spotted  with  glowing  green  and  blue, 
others  tinted  with  bright  red  The  Arabs  on  the  coast,  as 
well  as  their  cattle,  subsist  almost  entirely  on  this  kind  of 
food  ;  but  the  fishermen  always  kill  their  prey  before  bring- 
ing them  ashore,  for  fear  of  violating  some  precept  of  the 
Mohammedan  law.* 

Insects. — The  locust,  both  from  its  numbers  and  its  de- 
structiveness,  is  the  most  formidable  of  all  the  Arabian  in- 
sects. There  appears  to  be  various  species.  Forskal  calls 
that  which  infests  Arabia  Gryllus  gregarius,  from  their  liv- 
ing and  travelling  in  companies ;  and  thinks  it  different  from 
the  Gryllus  mipratorius  of  Linnaeus,  which  passes  from  its 
native  deserts  of  Tartary  into  Poland  and  Germany.  Nie- 
buhr  found  nests  of  these  insects  near  Mosul,  which 
he  thought,  with  proper  care,  might  easily  have  been  de- 
stroyed. They  are  said  to  breed  three  times  in  the  year. 
"VlTien  young,  they  are  about  the  size  of  a  fly,  but  grow 
with  great  rapidity,  and  attain  their  natural  size  in  a  few 
days.  The  prodigious  quantities  in  which  they  take  theiF 
flight  is  almost  incredible.  Their  swarms  darken  the  air, 
and  appear  at  a  distance  like  clouds  of  smoke.     The  noise 


death  by  inflammation."  Burckhardt  observes,  that  the  Arabic 
\ersion  of  the  Pentateuch  is  more  correct  than  our  translation, 
by  rendering  it  "  serpents  of  burning  bites,  instead  of  "  fiery 
serpents." 

*  Ali  Bey  has  noticed  a  battle  of  fishes  in  the  Red  Sea,  be- 
tween Jidda  and  Yembo.  The  scene  of  action, — a  circular 
space  of  twenty  feet  diameter, — was  indicated  by  the  bubbling 
and  noise  of  the  water,  which  extended  to  a  considerable  disr 
tance.  During  the  finny  combat,  swarms  of  seafowl  hovere4 
over  the  spot,  with  a  view  no  doubt  to  feast  on  the  slain. —  Trav^ 
tls,  vol.  ii.  p.  148. 


LOCUSTS.  419 

they  make  in  flying  is  like  the  rush  of  a  waterfall,  and  stuns 
the  inhabitants  with  fear  and  astonishment.  "V\Tien  they 
alight  upon  a  field,  it  is  wasted  and  despoiled  of  its  verdure 
in  an  instant.  The  palm-trees  are  stripped  of  every  leaf  and 
green  particle, — nothing  being  left  but  naked  boughs  as  in 
the  dead  of  winter.  Pulse  and  succulent  crops  are  devoured ; 
but  grain,  either  ripe  or  nearly  so,  is  preserved,  being  too 
hard  for  their  use.  No  pen  has  so  beautifully  depicted  their 
ravages  as  that  of  the  Prophet  Joel  : — "  The  land  is  as  the 
garden  of  Eden  before  them,  and  behmd  them  a  desolate 
wilderness."*  Africa,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  the  whole  of  Asia, 
are  subject  to  their  visitations.  In  Arabia  the  locusts  come 
invariably  from  the  East,  which  makes  the  Arabs  suppose 
that  they  are  produced  by  the  water  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Nejed  is  particularly  exposed  to  their  ravages  ;  and  when 
they  have  destroyed  the  harvests,  they  penetrate  by  thou- 
sands into  private  dwellings,  and  devour  whatever  they  can 
find, — even  the  leather  of  the  water-vessels.  The  Bedouins 
of  Sinai  are  frequently  driven  to  despair  by  the  multitudes  of 
these  vermin,  which  remain  generally  during  a  space  of 
forty  or  fifty  days,  and  then  disappear  for  the  rest  of  the  sea- 
son. They  arrive  towards  the  end  of  May,  when  the  Plei- 
ades are  setting,  which  leads  the  natives  to  suppose  tl"iat 
locusts  entertain  a  dread  for  that  constellation.  A  few  visit 
the  country  annually  ;  but  the  great  flights  take  place  every 
fourth  or  fifth  year.  All  Arabs,  except  those  of  Sinai,  wher- 
ever they  reside,  are  accustomed  to  eat  locusts.  In  almost 
every  town  tnere  are  shops  where  they  are  sold  by  measure. 
In  preparing  them  the  cook  throws  them  alive  into  boiling 
water,  with  which  a  good  deal  of  salt  has  been  mixed.  After 
a  few  minutes  they  are  taken  out,  and  dried  in  the  sun  ;  the 
head,  feet,  and  wings,  are  then  torn  off;  the  bodies  are 
cleansed  from  the  salt,  and  perfectly  dried,  after  which  they 
are  put  up  into  sacks  or  bags.  Sometimes  they  are  broiled 
in  butler,  and  spread  on  the  unleavened  bread  used  at  break- 
fast. The  Jewish  Arabs  beheve  that  the  food  of  which  the 
Israelites  ate  so  abundantly  in  the  desert  was  showers  of 
locusts ;  and  they  laugh  at  our  translators,  who  suppose  that 
quails  were  rained  where  quails  were  never  found. 

♦  See  Africa,  in  Edinburgh  Cabinet  Library,  2d  edit.  p.  500, 
501. 


420  NATURAL   HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

Another  scourge  of  Arabia,  and  of  hot  countries  in  gen- 
eral, is  a  small  insect  named  arda  (Termes  falale,  Linn.),  of 
the  bulk  of  a  grain  of  barley.  On  account  of  some  general 
resemblance,  this  insect  is  represented  as  an  ant.  Its  instinct 
disposes  it  to  travel  only  by  night ;  it  forms  a  sort  of  gallery 
or  mine  in  the  earth ;  and,  after  reaching  the  end  of  its  jour- 
ney, it  destroys  every  thing, — victuals,  clothes,  and  furni- 
ture. At  Beit  el  Fakih,  the  Danish  travellers  were  griev- 
ously annoyed  by  them  ;  they  invaded  their  chambers,  and 
persisted  in  their  attacks  with  singular  obstinacy.  They  are 
very  destructive  to  trees,  the  sweetness  of  whose  leaves  and 
fruit  is  extremely  gratifying  to  them.  To  preserve  their  gar- 
dens from  ruin,  the  natives  are  obliged  to  surround  the  trunks 
with  sheep's  dung,  the  smell  of  which  this  insect  cannot  en- 
dure. In  Arabia  there  are  many  species  of  ants,  all  of  which 
are  harmless,  except  two ;  one  of  these  attacks  the  natives, 
and  its  bite  is  little  less  painful  than  that  of  the  scorpion  ; 
the  other  settles  upon  their  -vnctuals  with  great  avidity,  and 
can  only  oe  driven  away  by  the  odour  of  camphor.  They  arf 
likewise  much  infested  by  a  sort  of  scolopendrar  which  tor- 
ments with  a  burning  pain  those  on  whom  it  fixes.  This 
insect  inserts  its  feet  into  the  flesh,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
get  rid  of  it,  otherwise  than  by  successively  burning  all  the 
parts  affected  with  a  hot  iron.  Another  venomous  insect, 
resembling  a  spider,  which  infests  the  deserts,  is  that  to  which 
the  Bedouins  give  the  name  of  abou  havekein,  or  the  two-^ 
mouthed.  Its  length  is  about  three  inches  ;  it  has  five  long 
legs  on  both  sides,  covered  like  the  body  with  satcE  or  bris- 
tles, of  a  light-yellow  colour.  The  head  is  long  and  pointed, 
with  large  black  eyes  ;  the  mouth  is  armed  with  two  pairs 
of  fangs,  one  above  the  other,  recurved  and  extremely  sharp. 
It  makes  its  appearance  only  at  night,  and  is  chiefly  attracted 
by  fire.  The  Arabs  entertain  the  greatest  dread  of  them  ; 
their  bite,  if  not  always  mortal,  produces  vomiting,  swelling, 
and  the  most  excruciating  pains.  Among  the  tenebriones  is 
one  species  which  destroys  reeds  and  attacks  the  stalks  of 
corn,  where  it  deposites  its  eggs.  Another  tenebrio,  found 
among  the  filth  of  gardens,  is  used  as  an  article  of  female 
luxury  Plumpness  being  thought  a  beauty  in  the  East,  both 
the  Turkish  and  Arab  women,  in  order  to  obtain  this  envi- 
able obesity,  swallow  every  morning  and  evening  three  of 
the«e  insects  fried  in  butter. 


SHELLS.  421 

Shells. — It  would  be  difficult  to  enumerate  the  vast  diver- 
sity of  shells  that  adorn  the  banks,  or  lie  in  the  shallows  of 
■the  Arabian  Seas.  Cypreez  are  seen  in  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
beautifully  spotted,  and  in  a  great  variety  of  sizes.  Turbin- 
ated and  bivalve  shells  are  also  common,  remarkable  not 
only  for  the  luxuriance  of  their  colours,  but  so  exceed- 
ingly capacious  that  Buc.cina  have  been  found  a  foot  and  a 
half  long,  while  some  of  the  bivalve  specimens  are  as  much 
in  diameter.  There  are  three  kinds  of  shell-fish  highly  val- 
ued on  account  of  the  pearls  which  they  contain.  The  first 
of  these  is  a  muscle,  which  is  found  chiefly  on  the  Egyptian 
coast  of  the  Gulf;  the  second  is  a  Pinna,  rough,  brittle,  and 
of  a  beautiful  red  colour  ;  the  third  bears  a  resemblance  to 
our  oyster.  The  pearl  of  the  first  is  seldom  of  a  clear  col- 
our, but  esteemed  for  its  form  and  lustre  ;  the  second  yields 
a  rich  mother-of-pearl,  of  a  white  colour,  tinged  with  a  deli- 
cate shade  of  red  ;  the  third,  called  lulu  el  berber,  is  most 
sought  after.  Vast  quantities  of  it  are  carried  to  Jerusalem, 
where  it  is  used  in  veneering,  or  formed  into  boxes,  beads, 
and  crucifixes.  Bruce  says  that  he  observed  none  of  these 
shells  on  either  side  of  the  Gulf  southward  of  the  parallel  of 
Mocha.  Edrisi  mentions  a  place  on  the  western  arm  of  the 
sea,  where  pearls  were  found ;  and  Burckhardt  states  that  the 
Bedouins  still  pick  up  a  considerable  quantity  there,  which 
■they  sell  to  advantage  to  the  ships  that  anchor  at  Moilah. 
Nor  is  this  the  only  benefit  which  the  Arabs  derive  from  their 
marine  wealth  ;  much  of  the  furniture  and  utensils  of  their 
houses,  as  well  as  their  personal  ornaments,  are  supplied  from 
this  watery  magazine.  The  Nautilus  serves  them  instead  of 
a  cup  ;  the  Buccinum  instead  of  a  jar  ;  and  a  bivalve  is  the 
dish  or  platter  from  which  they  eat  their  food.  Fossil  shells 
are  not  very  common ;  yet  at  Wady  Gharendel,  Ayoun  Mousa, 
Tor,  and  Suez,  Shaw  found  quantities  of  Chamce,  Pectun- 
culi,  Echini,  and  other  species ;  most  of  which  corresponded 
exactly  with  their  respective  families  still  contained  in  the 
Red  Sea.  Most  of  the  echini  are  remarkablv  beautiful, — 
some  being  flat  and  unarmed,  of  the  pentaphylloid  kind  ; 
others  oval  or  globular,  very  elegantly  studded  with  little 
knobs,  and  covered  with  prickles,  which  are  sometimes 
thicker  than  a  swan's  quill.  The  Asterias  or  star-fish  is  an» 
other  of  these  marine  productions.     Shaw  observed  some  of 

Vol.  II.— N  n 


422  NATURAL    HISTORY    OF    ARABIA. 

them  nine  inches  in  diameter ;  but  there  seemed  to  be  nothing 
peculiar  in  their  habits  or  conformation. 

Coral  Banks. — We  have  already  spoken  of  those  immense 
masses  of  submarine  rocks,  formed  by  myriads  of  minute 
creatures  of  the  polypus  kind,  called  Polypes  a  polypiers  by 
the  French  naturalists,  which  traverse  and  almost  fill  up  the 
Arabian  Gulf.     In  some  places  they  rise  ten  fathoms  above 
the  surface  of  the  water.     Being  soft,  and  easily  wrought, 
they  are  preferred  to  all  other   stones  for  the  purpose  of 
building.     Most  of  the  houses  in  Tehama  are  constructed  of 
this  material ;  so  that  every  cottage  is  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history.     The  island  of  Kameran  is  formed  entirely  of  coral 
rock,  which  rises  without  the  slightest  inquality  of  surface  to 
the  height  of  twenty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     The 
quantity  of  madrepores,  millepores,   algse,    and   other  sub- 
stances, which  procured  for  that  gulf  the  name  of  the  Weedy 
Sea,  is  immense.     When  rowing  gently  along  in  a  calm  day, 
they  appear  to  the  eye  much  the  same  as  in  the  time  of  Strabo 
and  Pliny,  who  described  them  as  forests  under  water.     Nor 
is  the  comparison  inapposite.     Shaw  remarks  that  several  of 
them  were  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  growing  sometimes  pyra- 
midal like  the  cypress ;  at  other  times  their  branches  spread 
more  open,  resembling  the  oak ;  while  the  entire  bottom  was 
overlaid  with   a  rich  green  carpet  of  creeping  plants.     At 
low  water,  especially  after  strong  tides  or  high  winds,  these 
marine  productions  are  cast  ashore  in  great  quantities.     The 
coralline  bodies  increase  to  an  extraordinary  size.     Several 
of  them,  such  as  the  meandrina,  or  brainstone,  are  observed 
to  retain  constantly  a  certain  specific  form ;  while  the  astroite 
madrepores  have  each  their  different  asterisks  or  starlike  fig- 
ures impressed  upon  their  surface.     They  assume  the  most 
fantastic  shapes,  as  m  course  of  their  increase  they  mould 
themselves  into  the  figures  of  rocks,  shells,  and  other  ob- 
jects that  lie  within  the  reach  of  their  growth.    With  respect 
to  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  waters,  it  is  sufficient  to  state 
that  both  the   Red    Sea   and   especially  the  Arabian  Gulf 
swarm  with  species  of  Meduscz,  Salpa,  FistularioE,  and  other 
kinds,  which  led  Forskal  to  believe  that  the  phosphorescence 
of  the  seas  was  owing  to  the  immense  numbers  of  these 
animals. 

THE   ENP. 


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